Online Encyclopedia

horde, variously estimated at from two to four thousand souls, with their flocks and their slaves, driven originally from their Central Asian homes by the pressure of Mongol invasion, and who had sought in vain a See also:

REFUGE

refuge with the Seljukian See also:

SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan See also:

Ala-ud-din Kaikobad of See also:

KONIA

Konia, were returning under their See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

SULEIMAN

Suleiman Shah to their native land. They were See also:

CROSSING

crossing the See also:

EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates, not far from the See also:

castle of Jaber, when the drowning of their See also:

LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader by See also:

accident threw confusion into their ranks. Those who had not yet crossed the See also:

RIVER

river refused, in See also:

FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of this See also:

OMEN (a Latin word, either connected with os, mouth, or more probably with auris (Gr. ois, ear; apparently, meaning " a thing heard " or " spoken ")

omen, to follow their brethren; the little See also:

BAND

band, numbering 400 warriors (according to others, consisting of 2000 horsemen) decided to remain under Ertoghrul, son of Ertoghrul, the drowned leader. Ertoghrul first camped at Jessin, 1230 1288. east of See also:

ERZERUM, or ARZRUM (Arm. Garin)

Erzerum; a second See also:

APPEAL

appeal to Ala-ud-din was more successful—the See also:

numbers of the immigrants had become too insignificant for their presence to be a source of danger.

The lands of Karaja Dagh, near See also:

ANGORA, or ENGURI

Angora, were assigned to the new settlers, who found there See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good pasturage and See also:

winter quarters. The help afforded by Ertoghrul to the Seljukian monarch on a See also:

CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical occasion led to the addition of Sugut to his See also:

FIEF

fief, with which he was now formally invested. Here Ertoghrul died in 1288 at the See also:

AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of ninety, being succeeded in the leader- See also:

SHIP

ship of the tribe by his son See also:

Osman. When, ex- ruler of See also:

TABRIZ

Tabriz, and one of Jenghiz Khan's lieu-tenants, the Seljukian Empire was at the point of See also:

DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution, most of its feudatory vassals helped rather than hindered its downfall in the See also:

hope of retaining their fiefs as See also:

INDEPENDENT

independent sovereigns. But Osman remained See also:

FIRM

firm in his See also:

ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance, and by repeated victories over the Greeks revived the drooping glories of his suzerain. His earliest See also:

CONQUEST

conquest was Karaja See also:

HISSAR

Hissar (1295), where first the name of Osman was substituted for that of the sultan in the weekly See also:

prayer. In that year Ala-ud-din Kaikobad II. conferred on him the proprietorship of the lands he had thus conquered by the See also:

SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword, and presented him at the same See also:

time with the See also:

HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-tail, See also:

DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century)

drum and banner which constituted the insignia of independent command. Osman continued his victorious career against the Greeks, and by his valour and also through allying himself with Keusse Mikhal, lord of Harman Kaya, became See also:

MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of Ainegeul, See also:

BILEJIK (Byzantine Belocome)

Bilejik and Yar Hissar. His See also:

MARRIAGE

marriage with Mal Khatun, the daughter of the learned See also:

SHEIKH, or SHAIKH

sheikh Edbali, has been surrounded by poetical legend; he married his son Orkhan to the beautiful See also:

Greek Nilofer, daughter of the lord of Yar Hissar, whom he carried off from her destined bridegroom on her marriage-See also:

day; the fruits of this See also:

union were Suleiman See also:

PASHA

Pasha and See also:

MURAD, or AMURATH

Murad. In 1300 the Seljukian Empire crumbled away, and many small states arose on its ruins. It was only after the See also:

DEATH

death of his See also:

PROTECTOR

protector and benefactor Sultan Ala-ud-din II. that Osman declared his See also:

independence, and accordingly the Turkish historian dates the See also:

FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the Ottoman Empire from this event. Osman reigned as independent monarch until 1326.

He pursued his conquests against the Greeks, and established good See also:

government throughout his dominions, which at the time of his death included the valleys of the Sakaria and Adranos, extending southwards to See also:

KUTAIAH, KUTAYA

Kutaiah and northwards to the See also:

Sea of See also:

Marmora. Infirmity had compelled him towards the end of his See also:

LIFE

life to depute the chief command to his younger son Orkhan, by whom in 1326 the conquest of See also:

BRUSA, or BROUSSA (anc. Prusa)

Brusa was at last effected after a See also:

long See also:

SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege. Orkhan's military prowess secured for him the See also:

SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession, to the exclusion of his See also:

elder See also:

BROTHER

brother Ala-ud-din, who became his See also:

GRAND

grand See also:

VIZIER

vizier. At that time a number of Orkhan, 26-1359. principalities had replaced the Seljukian See also:

state. 1326-13 Though Yahsha Bey, See also:

GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of Mahommed Kara-man Oghlu, had declared himself the successor of the Seljukian sultans, the princes of See also:

AIDIN

Aidin, Sarukhan, Menteshe, Kermian, Hamid, Tekke and Karassi declined to recognize his authority, and considered themselves independent, each in his own dominions. Their example was followed by the Kizil Ahmedli Emir Shems-ed-din, whose See also:

FAMILY

family was afterwards known as the See also:

house of Isfendiar in See also:

KASTAMUNI, or KASTAMBUL

Kastamuni. The See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country was split up among Turcoman tribes, such as the Zulfikar in See also:

MARASH (anc. Germanicia-Marasion)

Marash and the Al-i-Ramazan in See also:

ADANA

Adana. At his See also:

ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession Orkhan was practically on the same footing with these, and avoided weakening himself in the struggle for the Seljukian See also:

INHERITANCE

inheritance, preferring at first td consolidate his forces at Brusa. There he continued to wrest from the Greeks the lands which their feeble arms were no longer able to defend. He took Aidos, See also:

NICOMEDIA [mod. Ismid]

Nicomedia, Hereke, and, after a siege, See also:

Nicaea; Tarakli and Gemlik See also:

fell to his arms, and soon the whole of the See also:

SHORE

shore of the Marmora up to Kartal was conquered, and the Byzantines retained on the See also:

CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

ASIA

Asia See also:

Minor only Ala Shehr and Biga. These acquisitions were made between 1328 and 1338; in the latter year Orkhan achieved his first conquest from Mussulman hands by the See also:

CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Karassi, the pretext being the See also:

QUARREL

quarrel for the succession on the death of the See also:

prince, Ajlan Bey. At this See also:

period the state of the See also:

BYZANTINE

Byzantine Empire was such as to render its See also:

POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of resistance insignificant; indeed the length of time during which it held out against the Turks is to be attributed rather to the lack of efficacious means at the disposal of its assailants than to any qualities possessed by its defenders.

In Constantinople itself See also:

SEDITION (Lat. se or sed, apart, and ire, to go, a going apart, dissension)

sedition and. profligacy were rampant, the emperors were the tools of See also:

FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons combined for action, facere, to do; from the other French derivative facon comes " fashion ")

faction and cared but little for the interests of their subjects, whose See also:

lot was one of hopeless misery and depravity. On the death of the See also:

EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Andronicus III. in 1341 he was succeeded by See also:

John See also:

PALAEOLOGUS

Palaeologus, a minor; and Cantacuzenus, the See also:

mayor of the See also:

PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace, appealed to Orkhan for assistance to supplant him, giving in marriage to the Ottoman prince his daughter See also:

Theodora. Orkhan See also:

LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent the desired aid; his son Suleiman Pasha, See also:

GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of Karassi, crossed into Europe, crushed Cantacuzenus's enemies, and penetrated as far as the Balkans, returning laden with spoil. Thus the Turks learnt the country of the Greeks and their weakness. In 1355 Suleiman crossed over from Aidinjik and captured the fortress of See also:

Gallipoli, which was at once converted into a Turkish stronghold; from this See also:

BASE

base Bulair, Malgara, Ipsala and See also:

RODOSTO (Turkish, Tekir Dagh)

Rodosto were added to the Turkish possessions. Suleiman Pasha was killed by a fall from his horse near Bulair in 1358; the See also:

NEWS

news so affected his father Orkhan as to cause his death two months later. The institution of the See also:

JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish yeni cheri, new troops)

Janissaries (q.v.) holds a prominent See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place among the most remarkable events of Orkhan's reign, which was notable for the encouragement of learning and the foundation of See also:

SCHOOLS

schools, the See also:

BUILDING

building of roads and other works of public utility. Orkhan was succeeded by his son Murad. After capturing Angora from a horde of Turkomans encamped there who were attacking his dominions, at first with some success, murad in 1361 Murad prepared for a See also:

CAMPAIGN

campaign in Europe. 1359-1 1359-/389. At that time the Greek emperor's See also:

RULE

rule was See also:

con- fined to the shores of the Marmora, the See also:

ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago and See also:

THRACE

Thrace. See also:

SALONICA, SALONIKA

Salonica, See also:

THESSALY

Thessaly, See also:

Athens and the Morea were under independent Greek princes.

The Bulgarians, Bosnians and Servians had at different periods invaded and conquered the territories inhabited by them; the Albanians, See also:

ORIGINAL

original natives of their land, were governed by princes of their own. When, on the death of Cantacuzenus, John Palaeologus remained See also:

SOLE (Solea)

sole occupant of the imperial See also:

THRONE

throne, Murad declared See also:

war against him and conquered the country right up to See also:

Adrianople; the capture of this See also:

CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, the second See also:

capital of the emperors, was announced in See also:

OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official letters to the various Mussulman rulers by Murad. Three years later, in 1364, See also:

PHILIPPOPOLIS (Bulgarian, Plovdiv; Turkish, Felibe)

Philippopolis fell to Lala Shahin, the Turkish See also:

COMMANDER

commander in Europe. The states beyond the See also:

BALKAN

Balkan now began to dread the advance of the Turks; at the instigation of the See also:

pope an allied army of 6o,000 Serbs, Hungarians, Walachians and Moldavians attacked Lala Shahin. Murad, who had returned to Brusa, crossed over to Biga, and sent on Haji Ilbeyi with io,000 men; these fell by See also:

NIGHT

night on the Servians and utterly routed them at a place still known as the " Servians' See also:

COFFER (Fr. coffee, O. Fr. cofre or cofne, Lat. cophinus, cf. " coffin ")

coffer." In 1367 Murad made Adrianople his capital and enriched it with various new buildings. He continued to extend his territories in the See also:

north and See also:

west; the See also:

king of See also:

SERVIA

Servia and the rulers of See also:

KIUSTENDIL

Kiustendil, See also:

NICOPOLIS, or ACTIA NICOPOLIS

Nicopolis and See also:

SILISTRIA (Bulgarian Silistra)

Silistria agreed to pay See also:

TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute to the conquering Turk. Lala Shahin Pasha was appointed feudal lord of the See also:

DISTRICT

district of Philippopolis, and Timur Tash Pasha became beylerbey of See also:

RUMELIA, or ROUMELIA (Turkish Rumili, " the land of the Romans," i.e. the East Roman or Byzantine empire)

Rumelia; See also:

MONASTIR, or BITOLIA

Monastir, Perlepe, and parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina were next taken, and the king of Servia consented to furnish to Murad a fixed contingent of See also:

AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

auxiliary troops, besides paying a See also:

MONEY

money tribute. In 1381 Murad's son Yilderim Bayezid married Devlet Shah Khatun, Osman /, hausted by the onslaughts of Ghazan Mahmud Khan, 1288-1326. daughter of the prince of Kermian, who brought him in See also:

DOWRY (in Anglo-Fr. dowarie, O. Fr. douaire, Med. Lat. dotaria, from Lat. dos; from root of dare, to give; in Fr. dot)

dowry Kutaiah and its six dependent provinces. In the same year Bey Shehr and other portions of the Hamid principality were acquired by See also:

PURCHASE

purchase from their ruler Hussein Bey, as the Karamanian princes were beginning to See also:

CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast covetous eyes on them; but the Karamanians were unwilling to resign their claims to be heirs of the Seljukian sultans, and not until the reign of Mahommed II. were they finally suppressed. See also:

Ali Bey, the prince at this time, took See also:

ADVANTAGE

advantage of Murad's See also:

ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence in Europe to declare war against him; but the Ottoman ruler returning crushed him at the See also:

BATTLE

battle of Konia. Meanwhile the king of Bosnia, acting in See also:

COLLUSION (from Lat. colludere, strictly, to play with)

collusion with the Karamanian prince, attacked and utterly defeated Timur Tash Pasha, who lost 15,000 out of an army of 20,000 men.

The princes and See also:

KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings who had consented to pay tribute were by this success encouraged to See also:

REBEL, JOHANN PETER (176o-1826)

rebel, and the Servian troops who had taken See also:

PART

part in the battle of Konia became insubordinate: Indignant at the severity with which they were punished, See also:

Lazarus, king of Servia, joined the rebel princes. Murad thereupon returned to Europe with a large force, and sent Chendereli Zade Ali Pasha northwards; the fortresses of See also:

SHUMLA (Bulgarian Shumen, Turkish Shumna)

Shumla, Pravadi, See also:

TRNOVO, or TIRNOVO

Trnovo, Nicopolis and Silistria were taken by him; Sisman III., rebel king of See also:

Bulgaria, was punished and Bulgaria once more subjugated. Ali Pasha then joined his master at See also:

KOSSOVO

Kossovo. Here Lazarus, king of Servia, had collected an army of See also:

ioo,000 Serbs, Hungarians, Moldavians, Walachians and others. On the. 27th of See also:

AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1389 the greatest of the battles of Kossovo was fought. A See also:

LIGHTNING

lightning See also:

charge of Yilderim Bayezid's dispelled the confide See also:

ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice of the enemy, scattering death and dismay in their ranks. The king of Servia was killed and his army cut to pieces, though the Turks numbered but 4o,000 and had all the disadvantage of the position. After the battle, while Murad was reviewing his victorious troops on the See also:

field, he was assassinated by Milosh Kabilovich, a Servian who was allowed to approach him on the plea of submission. Murad maintained a show of friendly relations with the emperor John Palaeologus, while capturing his cities. A See also:

REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

review held by him in 1387 at Yeni Shehr was attended by the emperor, who, moreover, gave one of his daughters in marriage to Murad and the other two to his sons Bayezid and Yakub Chelebi. These princes were viceroys of Kermian and Karassi respectively; the youngest son, Sauji Bey, governed at Brusa during his father's absence.

Led away by evil counsellors, Sauji Bey plotted with Andronicus, son of the emperor, to dethrone their respective fathers. The See also:

ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt was foiled; Andronicus was blinded by his father's orders and Sauji was put to death (1387). After being proclaimed on the field of Kossovo, Bayezid's first care was to See also:

order the See also:

EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of his brother Yakub Chelebi, and so to preclude any repetition of 1389-1403' Sauji's See also:

plot. The young prince Andronicus, who had not been completely blinded, sent secretly to Bayezid and offered him 30,000 ducats to dethrone his father John Palaeologus and make him emperor. Bayezid consented; later on John Palaeologus offered an See also:

EQUIVALENT

equivalent sum and, since he engaged to furnish an auxiliary force of 12,000 men into the bargain, Bayezid replaced him on the throne. By the aid of these auxiliaries the fort of Ala Shehr was captured (1392), Manuel. Palaeologus, son of the emperor, being allowed, in See also:

COMMON

common with many other princes, the See also:

PRIVILEGE

privilege of serving in the Turkish army, then the best organized and disciplined force extant. The principalities of Aidin, Menteshe, Sarukhan and Kermian were annexed to Bayezid's dominions to punish their rulers for having joined with the 'Karamanian prince in See also:

REBELLION

rebellion. The exiled princes took refuge with the Kizil Ahmedli, ruler of Kastamuni, who persuaded the Walachians to rebel against the Turks. By a brilliant See also:

march to the See also:

DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube Bayezid subjugated them; then returning to Asia he crushed the prince of See also:

KARAMANIA

Karamania, who had made See also:

head again and had defeated Timur Tash Pasha. Bayezid now consolidated his Asiatic dominions by the capture of Kaisarieh, See also:

Sivas and See also:

TOKAT (Armenian Evtoghia, anc. Dazimon)

Tokat from Tatar invaders, the See also:

RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of Jenghiz Khan's hordes. See also:

SINOPE

Sinope, Kastamuni and See also:

SAMSUN (anc. Antisus)

Samsun were surrendered by the prince of Isfendiar, and the conquest of Asia Minor seemed assured.

On the death of John Palaeologus in 1391 his son Manuel, who was serving in the Turkish army, fled, without asking leave, to Constantinople, and assumed the imperial dignity. Bayezid determined to punish this insubordination- Constantinople was besieged and an army marched into See also:

MACEDONIA

Macedonia, capturing Salonica and See also:

LARISSA (Turk. Yeni Shehr, " new town ")

Larissa (1395). The siege of the capital was, how-ever, unsuccessful; the pope and the king of See also:

Hungary were able to create a diversion by rousing the See also:

Christian rulers to a sense of their danger. An army of crusaders marched upon the Turkish See also:

BORDERS, THE

borders; believing Bayezid to be engaged in the siege of Constantinople, they crossed the Danube without precaution and invested Nicopolis. While the fortress held out with difficulty Bayezid fell upon the besiegers like a thunderbolt. The first onslaught of the Knights of the See also:

CROSS

Cross did indeed rout the weak irregulars placed in the See also:

van of the Turkish army, but their mad pursuit was checked by the steady ranks of the Janissaries, by whom they were completely defeated (1396). King See also:

SIGISMUND (1368-1437)

Sigismund of Hungary barely escaped in a fishing See also:

BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat; his army was cut to pieces to a man; among the prisoners taken was jean Sans Peur, brother of the king of See also:

France. To the usual See also:

LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter announcing the victory the See also:

CALIPH, CALIF

caliph in See also:

EGYPT

Egypt replied saluting Bayezid with the See also:

TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of " Sultan of the lands of See also:

Rum." After the victory of Nicopolis the siege of Constantinople was resumed, and the See also:

TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower of See also:

ANATOLI, JACOB (c. 1194-1256)

Anatoli Hissar, on the Asiatic See also:

side of the See also:

BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. Boo-iopos=ox-ford, tradition-ally connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings)

Bosporus, was now built. However, by sending heavy bribes to Bayezid and his vizier, and by offering to build a See also:

MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

mosque and a Mussulman See also:

QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter, and to allow Bayezid to be named in the weekly prayer, Manuel succeeded in inducing Bayezid to raise the siege. The mosque was destroyed later on and the Mussulman settlers driven out. Between 1397 and 1399 Bayezid overran Thessaly, while in Asia his See also:

LIEUTENANT

lieutenant Timur Tash was extending his conquests. Meanwhile Timur (Tamer-See also:

lane) had started from See also:

SAMARKAND

Samarkand on his victorious career.

With incredible rapidity his hosts spread and plundered from See also:

BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD

Bagdad to See also:

Moscow. After devastating See also:

GEORGIA

Georgia in 1401 he marched against the Turks. Some of the dispossessed princes of Asia Minor had repaired to Timur and begged him to reinstate them; accordingly Timur sent to Bayezid to See also:

REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request that this might be done. The See also:

TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone of the demand offended Bayezid, who rejected it in terms equally See also:

sharp. As a result Timur's countless hordes attacked and took Sivas, plundering the See also:

TOWN

town and massacring its inhabitants. Then, to avenge an insult sustained from the ruler of Egypt, Timur marched See also:

south-wards and devastated See also:

SYRIA

Syria, thence turning to Bagdad, which shared the same See also:

FATE

fate. He then retraced his steps to the north-west. Bayezid had taken advantage of his absence to defeat the ruler of See also:

ERZINGAN, or ERZINJAN (Arsingaof the middle ages)

Erzingan, a protege of Timur. All attempts to arrange a truce between the two intractable conquerors were in vain. They met in the neighbourhood of Angora. Timur's army is said to have numbered 200,000, Bayezid's force to. have amounted to about See also:

HALF

half that figure, mostly seasoned veterans, The sultan's five sons were with the army, as well as all his generals; 7000 Servian auxiliaries under See also:

Stephen, son of Lazarus, took part in the battle (1402). Prodigies of valour on the part of Bayezid's troops could not make up for the defection of the newly-absorbed levies from Aidin, Sarukhan and Menteshe who went over to their former princes in Timur's See also:

CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp.

The rout of the Turkish army was See also:

COMPLETE

complete. Bayezid, with many of his generals, was taken prisoner. Though treated with some deference by his captor, who even promised to reinstate him. Bayezid's proud spirit could not endure his fall, and he died eight months later at Ak Shehr. After the disaster of Angora, from which it seemed impossible that the Ottoman fortunes could ever recover, the princes fled each with as many troops as he could induce to See also:

LUTE (Arabic al'ud, " the wood "; Fr. luth; Ital. liuto; Span. laud; Ger. Laute; Dut. luit)

lute,. follow him, being hotly pursued by Timur's armies. regnum, Only Mussa was captured. Timur reached Brusa, 1403-1413-and there laid hands on the treasure of Bayezid; one after another the cities of the Turks were seized and plundered by the See also:

TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars. Meanwhile Timur sent letters after the fugitive sons of Bayezid promising to confer on them their father's dominions, and protesting that his attack had been due merely to the insulting tone adopted towards him by Bayezid and to the entreaties of the dispossessed princes of Asia Minor. Most of the latter were reinstated, with the See also:

OBJECT

object of reducing the Turkish See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power. Timur did not cross into Europe, and con-tented himself with accepting some trifling presents from the Greek emperor. After capturing See also:

SMYRNA (Ismir)

Smyrna he returned to Samarkand (1405). Some years of strife followed between the sons of Bayezid, in which three of them fell; Mussa, seizing Adrianople, laid siege to Constantinople, and Manuel Palaeologus, the emperor, appealed for aid to Mahommed, the other son, who had established himself at Brusa. In 1413 Mahommed defeated Mussa, and thus remained sole See also:

HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir to Bayezid's throne; in seven or eight years he succeeded in regaining all the territories over which his father had ruled, whereas Timur's empire fell to pieces at the death of its founder.

Two years after his accession Mahommed overcame a rebellion of the prince of Kara-See also:

MANIA

mania and recaptured his stronghold Konia (1416), and then, turning northwards, forced Mircea, See also:

VOIVODE (also Vaivode, Vayvode, Wayvode, &c., Med. Gr. oe 68os)

voivode of See also:

WALACHIA, or WALLAHHIA

Walachia, who in the dispute as to the succession had supported Prince Mussa, to pay tribute. The Turkish dominions in Asia Minor were extended, See also:

AMASIA (anc. Amasia)

Amasia, Samsun and Janik being captured, and an insurrection of dervishes was quelled. In 1421 the sultan died. His services in the regeneration of the Turkish power can hardly be over-estimated; all agree in recognizing his See also:

GREAT

great qualities and the See also:

CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm of his See also:

CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character; even Timur is said to have admired him so much as to offer him his daughter in marriage. The honour was declined, and Mahommed took a See also:

BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

bride from the house of Zulfikar. Amid the cares of state he found time for works of public utility and for the support of literature and See also:

art; he is credited with having sent the first See also:

EMBASSY

embassy to a Christian power, after the Venetian expedition to Gallipoli in 1416, and the Ottoman See also:

NAVY

navy is first heard of in his reign. At the time of Mahommed's death his eldest son Murad was at Amasia; and, as the troops had lately shown signs of insubordi- umnation, it was deemed advisable to conceal the news 1451. of the sultan's death and to send a part of the army across to Asia. The men, however, refused to march without seeing their sultan, and the singular expedient was resorted to of propping up the dead monarch's See also:

BODY

body in a dark See also:

ROOM

room and concealing behind it an attendant who raised the hands and moved the head of the See also:

CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse as the troops marched past. Shortly after Murad's accession the emperor Manuel, having applied in vain for the renewal of the annual See also:

SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve,")

subsidy paid him by the See also:

LATE

late sultan for retaining in safe custody Mustafa, an alleged son of Bayezid, released the pretender. Adherents flocked to him, and for a whole year Murad was engaged in suppressing his attempts to usurp the throne. At last the armies of sultan and pretender met at Ulubad (Lopadion) on the Rhyndacus in Asia Minor; Mustafa's troops fled at the first onset; See also:

LAMPSACUS

Lampsacus, where the pretender took refuge, was captured with the aid of the Genoese galleys under Adorno. Mustafa, who had crossed the strait and fled north-wards, was taken, brought to Adrianople, and hanged from a tower of the serai (1422).

Murad now laid siege to Constantinople to avenge himself on the emperor, and on the 24th of August the desperate valour of the defenders succeeded in See also:

DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving back an See also:

ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault led by a band of fanatical dervishes. The siege was raised, however, not owing to the bravery of the defence, but because the appearance of another pretender, in the See also:

PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of Murad's thirteen-year-old brother Mustafa, under the See also:

PROTECTION

protection of the revolted princes of Karamania and Kermian, called the sultan to Asia. Mustafa, delivered up by treachery, was hanged (1424); but Murad remained in Asia, restoring order in the provinces, while his lieutenants continued the war against the Greeks, Albanians and Walachians. By the treaty signed on the 22nd of See also:

FEBRUARY

February 1424, shortly before his death, the emperor Manuel II., in order to See also:

SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save the remnant of his empire, agreed to the See also:

PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of a heavy annual tribute and to surrender all the towns on the See also:

Black Sea, except Selymbria and Derkos, and those on the river Strymon. See also:

Peace was also made at the .ame time with the See also:

DESPOT (Gr. Sc-va6rgs, lord or master; the origin of the first part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with rbvcs, husband, Lat. potens, powerful)

despot of Servia and the voivode of Walachia, on the basis of the payment of tribute. By 1426 the princes of Kermian and Karamania had submitted on honour-able terms; and Murad was soon See also:

FREE

free to continue his conquests in Europe. Of these the most conspicuous was that of Salonica. Garrisoned only by 1500 Venetians, the city was carried by See also:

storm (March 1, 1428); the merciful precedent set by Mahommed I. was not followed, the greater part of the inhabitants being massacred or sold into See also:

SLAVERY

slavery, and the See also:

PRINCIPAL

principal churches converted into mosques. The capture of Salonica had been preceded by renewed troubles with Servia and Hungary, peace being concluded with both in 1428. But these See also:

TREATIES

treaties, each of which marked a fresh Turkish advance, were short-lived. The See also:

story of the next few years is but a See also:

DISMAL

dismal See also:

RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of aggression and of See also:

REPRISALS (Fr. represailles, from reprendre; Lat. reprehendere, to take back)

reprisals leading to fresh aggression. In 1432 the Turkish troops plundered in Hungary as far as See also:

TEMESVAR

Temesvar and Hermannstadt, while in Servia See also:

SEMENDRIA (Smederevo)

Semendria was captured and See also:

BELGRADE (Servian, Biograd or Beograd, i.e. " White Castle")

Belgrade invested.

In Transylvania, however, the common peril evoked by the Turkish incursion and a simultaneous rising of the Vlach peasantry had knit together the jarring interests of See also:

MAGYARS

Magyars, See also:

SAXONS

Saxons and See also:

SZEKLERS, or SZEKELS (Szekely, Lat. Siculi)

Szeklers, a union which, under the See also:

NATIONAL

national See also:

hero, the voivode Janos See also:

HUNYADI, LASZLO (1433—1457)

Hunyadi (q.v.), was destined for a while to turn the See also:

TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide of war. In 1442 Hunyadi drove the Turks from Hermannstadt and, at the head of an army of Hungarians, Poles, Servians, Walachians and See also:

German crusaders, succeeded in the ensuing year in expelling them from Semendria, penetrating as far as the Balkans, where he inflicted heavy losses on the Turkish See also:

general. Meanwhile, again confronted by a rebellion of the prince of Karamania, Murad had crossed into Asia and reduced him to submission, granting him See also:

HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable terms, in view of the urgency of the peril in Europe. On the 12th of See also:

JULY

July 1444 a ten years' peace was signed with Hungary, whereby Walachia was placed under the See also:

SUZERAINTY

suzerainty of that country; and, wearied by See also:

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant warfare and afflicted by the death of his eldest son, Prince Ala-ud-din, Murad abdicated in favour of his son Mahommed, then only fourteen years of age, and retired to See also:

MAGNESIA

Magnesia (1444). The pope urged the king of Hungary to take advantage of this favourable opportunity by breaking the truce solemnly agreed upon,. and nineteen days after it had been concluded a See also:

COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition was firmed against the Turks; a large army headed by See also:

LADISLAUS [I.]

Ladislaus I., king of Hungary, Hunyadi, voivode of Walachia, and See also:

CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

Cardinal Cesarini crossed the Danube and reached See also:

VARNA

Varna, where they hoped to be joined by the Greek emperor. In this emergency Murad was implored to return to the throne; to a second appeal he gave way, and crossing over with his Asiatic army from Anatoli Hissar he hastened to Varna. The battle was hotly contested; but, in spite of the prowess of Hunyadi, the rout of the Christians was complete; the king of Hungary and Cardinal Cesarini were among the killed. Murad is said to have abdicated a second time, and to have been again recalled to power owing to a revolt of the Janissaries. In 1446 See also:

Corinth, See also:

PATRAS (Gr. Patrai)

Patras and the north of the Morea were added to the Turkish dominions. The latter years of Murad's reign were troubled by the successful resistance offered to his arms in See also:

ALBANIA

Albania by See also:

SCANDERBEG, or ISKENDER BEY (14o3-1467)

Scanderbeg (q.v.). In 1448 Hunyadi, now governor of Hungary, collected the largest army yet mustered by the Hungarians against the Turks, but he was defeated on the famous field of Kossovo and with difficulty escaped, while most of the See also:

CHIVALRY (O. Fr. chevalerie, from Late Lat. caballerius)

chivalry of Hungary fell. Little more than two years later Murad died at Adrianople, being succeeded by his son Mahommed.

After suppressing a fresh revolt of the prince of Karamania, the new sultan gave himself up entirely to the realization of the long-cherished project of the conquest of Con- Mahomstantinople. He began by building on the See also:

EUROPEAN

European medu. the side of the Bosporus the fort known as Rumeli Conqueror, Hissar, opposite that built by his grandfather See also:

Bay- ezid. 145-t4 Tradition avers that but See also:

FORTY

forty days were needed for the completion of the See also:

WORK

work, six thousand men being employed night and day; guns and troops were hurriedly put in, and all See also:

NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation of the Bosporus was stopped. After completing his preparations, which included the casting of a See also:

monster See also:

CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination -on, -one)

cannon and the manufacture of enormous engines of assault, Mahommed Mahommed 1., 1413-1421. began the siege in 1453. See also:

CONSTANTINE

Constantine Palaeologus, the last occupant of the imperial throne, took every measure that the courage of despair could devise for the defence of the doomed city; but his appeal to the pope for the aid of Western Christendom was frustrated through the bigoted, See also:

ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-See also:

CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic spirit of the Greeks. The defenders were dispirited and torn by sedition and dissensions, and the emperor could rely on little more than 8000 fighting men, while the assailants, 200,000 strong, were animated by the wildest fanatical zeal. The siege had lasted fifty-three days when, on the 29th of May 1453, a tremendous assault was successful; the desperate efforts of the Greeks were unavailing, Constantine himself falling among the foremost defenders of the See also:

BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach. The sultan triumphantly entered the palace of the emperors, and the next See also:

FRIDAY (A.S. frige-dreg, fr. frige, gen. of frigu, love, or the goddess of love—the Norse Frigg,—the dreg, day; cf. Icelandic frjddagr, O.H. Ger. friatag, frigatag, mod. Ger. Freitag)

Friday's prayer was celebrated in the See also:

church of St See also:

SOFIA (Bulgarian Sredetz, the middle town, a name now little used)

Sofia (see See also:

ROMAN

ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER). After some days' stay in Constantinople, during which he granted wide privileges to the Greeks and to their See also:

PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch, the sultan proceeded northwards and entirely subdued the See also:

SOUTHERN

southern parts of Servia. A siege of Belgrade was unsuccessful, owing to the timely succour afforded by Hunyadi (1456). Two years later See also:

INTERNAL

internal dissensions in Servia brought about the conquest of the whole country by the Turks, only Belgrade remaining in the hands of the Hungarians.

The independent princes of Asia Minor were now completely subjugated and their territories finally absorbed into the Turkish dominions; Walachia was next reduced to the state of a tributary See also:

province. See also:

Venice having adopted a hostile attitude since Turkey's con-quests in the Morea, greater See also:

ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention was devoted to the See also:

FLEET

fleet; Mytilene was captured and the entrance to the straits fortified. The conquest of Bosnia, rendered necessary by the war with Venice, was next completed, in spite of the reverses inflicted on the Turks by the Hungarian king See also:

Matthias See also:

CORVINUS, JANOS [JOHN] (1473–1504)

Corvinus, the son of Janos Hunyadi. The Turks continued to See also:

PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press the Venetians by land and sea; Albania, which under Scanderberg had for twenty-five years resisted the Ottoman arms, was overrun; and Venice was forced to agree to a treaty by which she ceded to Turkey See also:

Scutari and Krola, and consented to pay an See also:

INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity of 1oo,000 ducats (See also:

Jan. 25, 1478). The See also:

CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim)

Crimea was next conquered and bestowed as a tributary province on the Tatar khan Mengli Girai. Mahommed now endeavoured to strike a See also:

BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow at See also:

Rhodes, the stronghold of the Knights of St John, preparatory to carrying out his long-cherished See also:

plan of conquering See also:

Italy. A powerful See also:

NAVAL

naval expedition was fitted out, but failed, an See also:

ARMISTICE (from Lat. arma, arms, and sistere, to stop)

armistice and treaty of commerce being signed with the grand master, See also:

PIERRE

Pierre d'See also:

Aubusson (1479). But a land attack on southern Italy at the same time was successful, See also:

OTRANTO

Otranto being captured and held for a time by the Turks. In 1481 the sultan was believed to be projecting a campaign against the Circassian rulers of Syria and Egypt, when he died at Gebze. He is said to have been of a merry and even jocular disposition, to have afforded a generous patronage to learning, and, See also:

STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange to say for a sultan, to have been master of six See also:

LANGUAGES

languages. Mahommed II. was the organizer of the fabric of Ottoman See also:

ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration in the See also:

FORM (Lat. forma)

form which it retained practically unchanged until the reforms of Mahmud II. and Abd-ul-Mejid.

He raised the See also:

REGULAR

regular forces of the country to a See also:

TOTAL

total exceeding Ioo,ogo; the pay of the Janissaries was by him increased, and their ranks were brought up to an effective of upwards of 12,000. He established the See also:

SYSTEM

system whereby the lands conquered by the arms of his troops were divided into the different classes of fiefs, or else assigned to the See also:

MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of mosques, colleges, schools and charitable institutions, or converted into common and pasturage lands. Many educational and benevolent See also:

FOUNDATIONS

foundations were endowed by him, and it is to Mahommed II. that the organization of the See also:

ULEMA (Arab. 'ulama, sing. 'alim, literally " knowers," in the sense of sciences)

ulema, or legist and ecclesiastical class, is due. Upon Bayezid II. succeeding to his father a serious revolt of the troops took place, which led to the institution of the regular payment of an accession donative to the 1481-1512. r. Janissaries. At the outset of the reign Bayezid's brother, Prince Jem, made a serious attempt to claim the throne; he was defeated, and eventually took refuge with the knights of Rhodes, whom Bayezid bribed to keep him in safe custody. The unfortunate prince was led from one European stronghold to another, and, after thirteen years' wandering, died at See also:

Naples in 1494 (see BAYEZID II.). Freed from the danger of his brother's attacks, the sultan gave himself up to devotion, leaving to his ministers the conduct of affairs in peace and war. But, though of an unambitious and peace-loving See also:

TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper, the very conditions of his empire made war inevitable. Even when peace was nominally in existence, war in its most horrible forms was actually being waged. On the See also:

NORTHERN

northern frontier border raids on a large See also:

scale were frequent. Thus, in 1492 the Turks made incursions into See also:

CARINTHIA (Ger. Kdrnten)

Carinthia as far as See also:

LAIBACH (Slovenian, Ljubljana)

Laibach, and into See also:

STYRIA (German, Steiermark or Steyermark)

Styria as far as See also:

Cilli, committing unspeakable atrocities; in 1493 they overran both Styria and Croatia.

The Hungarians retaliated in See also:

KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, burning and harrying as far as Semendria, torturing and murdering, and carrying off the saleable inhabitants as slaves. In 1494 a crushing victory of the emperor See also:

Maximilian drove the Turks out of Styria, which they did not venture again to invade during his reign. In 1496 the temporary armistice between the Poles and Turks, renewed in 1493, came to an end, and John See also:

Albert, king of See also:

Poland, seized the occasion to invade See also:

MOLDAVIA

Moldavia. The efforts of Ladislaus of Hungary to mediate were vain, and the years 1497 and 1498 were marked by a terrible devastation of Poland by the Ottomans; only the See also:

BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter winter, which is said to have killed 40,000 Turks, prevented the devastation from being more complete. By the peace concluded in 1500 the sultan's dominions were again ex-tended. Meanwhile, in See also:

JUNE

June 1499, war had again broken out with Venice, mainly owing to the intervention of the pope and emperor, who, with See also:

Milan, See also:

Florence and Naples, urged the sultan to crush the See also:

REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic. On the 28th of July the Turks gained over the Venetians at Sapienza their first great victory at sea; and this was followed by the capture of See also:

LEPANTO

Lepanto, at which Bayezid was See also:

PRESENT

present, and by the conquest of the Morea and most of the islands of the archipelago. By the peace signed on the 24th of See also:

DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1502, however, the status quo was practically restored, the sultan contenting himself with receiving See also:

SANTA

Santa Maura in See also:

EXCHANGE

exchange for See also:

CEPHALONIA (Ital. Cefalonia, ancient and modern official Greek Cephallenia, Ke¢aXMvia)

Cephalonia. Meanwhile in Asia also the Ottoman Empire had been consolidated and extended; but from 1501 onwards the ambitious designs of the youthful Shah See also:

ISMAIL (1830-1895)

Ismail in See also:

PERSIA

Persia See also:

GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew more and more threatening to its See also:

SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security; and though Bayezid, See also:

INTENT (from Lat. intend ere, to stretch out, extend, particularly in the phrase intendere animum, to turn one's mind to, purpose)

intent on peace, winked at his violations of Ottoman territory and exchanged friendly embassies with him, a breach was sooner or later inevitable. This danger, together with the growing insubordination of the aged sultan's sons, caused his ministers to urge him to abdicate in favour of See also:

SELIM

Selim, the younger but more valiant. This prince pushed his audacity so far as to attack his father's troops, but the See also:

ACTION

action merely increased his popularity with the Janissaries, and Bayezid, after a reign of See also:

THIRTY

thirty-one years, was obliged to abdicate in favour of his forceful younger son; a few days later he died. This reign saw the end of the Mussulman rule in See also:

Spain, Turkey's naval power not being yet sufficient to afford aid to her co-religionists.

It also saw the first intercourse between a See also:

RUSSIAN

Russian See also:

TSAR, or CZAR

tsar and an Ottoman sultan, See also:

IVAN (JOHN)

Ivan III. exchanging in 1492 friendly messages with Bayezid through the Tatar khan Mengli Girai; the first Russian See also:

AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador appeared at Constantinople three years later. When he had ruthlessly quelled the resistance offered to his accession by his See also:

BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers, who both fell in the struggle for the throne, Selim undertook his campaign in Persia, semi having first extirpated the Shia See also:

HERESY

heresy, the prevalent W2a520. See also:

SECT

sect of Persia, in his dominions, where it threatened to extend. After an arduous march and in spite of the mutinous behaviour of his troops, Selim, crushed the Persians at Chaldiran (1515) and became master of the whole of See also:

KURDISTAN

Kurdistan. He next turned against the See also:

MAMELUKE (anglicized through the French, from the Arabic mantluk, a slave)

Mameluke rulers of Egypt, crushed them, and entering See also:

Cairo as conqueror (1517), obtained from the last of the Abbasid caliphs,' Motawakkil, the title of caliph (q.v.) 1 After the fall of the caliphs of Bagdad (1258), descendants of the See also:

ABBASIDS

Abbasids took refuge in Cairo and enjoyed a purely titular authority under the protection of the See also:

EGYPTIAN

Egyptian rulers. for himself and his successors (see EGYPT: History; Mahommedan Period). The sultan also acquired from him the sacred banner and other relics of the founder of Islam, which have since been preserved in the Seraglio at Constantinople. Egypt, Syria and the See also:

HEJAZ (H1JAz)

Hejaz, the former empire of the Mamelukes, were added to the Ottoman dominions. Towards the end of Selim's reign the religious revolt of a certain Jellal, who collected 2oo,000 adherents, was the cause of much trouble; but he was eventually routed and his force dispersed near Tokat. While preparing an expedition against Rhodes to avenge the repulse sustained forty years before by Mahommed II., the sultan died at Orashkeui, near Adrianople, at the spot where he had attacked his father's troops. His reign of eight years had almost doubled the extent of the Turkish dominions. He was succeeded by his son Suleiman " the Magnificent," in whose long and eventful reign Turkey attained the highest point of her See also:

GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory.

Selim's Asiatic conquests had su'ehnan See also:

LEFT

left his successor free to enter upon a campaign in Europe, after the suppression of a revolt of the governor of See also:

DAMASCUS

Damascus, who had thought to take advantage of the new sultan's accession to restore the independent rule of the Circassian chiefs. In 1521 war was declared against the king of Hungary on the pretext that he had sent no congratulations on Suleiman's accession. Belgrade was besieged and captured, a conquest which Mahommed II. had failed to effect. In the next year an expedition was undertaken against Rhodes, the capture of which had become doubly important since the acquisition of Egypt. The siege, which was finally conducted by the sultan in person, was successful after six months' duration; the forts of See also:

Cos and Budrum were also taken. The European war was now renewed; in 1526 the sultan, marching from See also:

Bel-grade, crossed the Danube and took See also:

PETERWARDEIN (Hung. Petervarad, Serv. Petrovaradin)

Peterwardein and See also:

ESSEG, ESSEGG

Esseg; on the field of See also:

MOHACS

Mohacs he encountered and defeated the Hungarians under king See also:

Louis II., who was killed with the See also:

flower of the Hungarian chivalry (see HUNGARY: History). See also:

BUDAPEST

Budapest hereupon fell to the Turks, who appointed John Zapolya king of Hungary (1528). But the See also:

CROWN

crown of Hungary was claimed by the See also:

ARCHDUKE (Lat. archidux, Ger. Erzherzog)

archduke See also:

Ferdinand, brother of the emperor See also:

Charles V., as being king Louis's brother-in-law. This brought Turkey into collision with the great emperor. Moreover, See also:

Francis I. of France, who had just been defeated by Charles, sent to the sultan ambassadors and messages dwelling on the danger of allowing Charles's power to become too great, and imploring the assistance of Suleiman as the only means of preserving the See also:

BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance of power in Europe. Meanwhile Ferdinand's troops captured Budapest, driving out Zapolya, who at once appealed to Suleiman for aid. Suleiman decided against Charles, and marched north (1529).

Zapolya joined the Turks at Mohacs, and a See also:

JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint attack was made on Budapest. After five days' siege the Austrians were driven out, and Zapolya was reinstated on the throne of Hungary. The Turks then marched on Vienna, which was bombarded and closely invested, but so valiant was the resistance offered that after three See also:

WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks the siege was abandoned (Oct. 14, 1529). Suleiman now prepared for a campaign in See also:

Germany and sought to measure himself against Charles, who, however, withdrew from his approach, and little was done save to ravage Styria and Slavonia. In 1533 a truce was arranged, Hungary being divided between Zapolya and Ferdinand. During the Hungarian campaign the Shia sectaries had been encouraged to revolt, and the Persians had overrun See also:

AZERBAIJAN (also spelt ADERBIJAN; the Azerbadegan of medieval writers, the Athro patakan and Atropatene of the ancients)

Azerbaijan and recaptured Tabriz. Suleiman, therefore, turned his arms against them, reaching Bagdad in 1534, and capturing the whole of See also:

ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia. The naval exploits of Khair-ed-din Pasha (see See also:

BARBAROSSA ("Redbeard")

BARBAROSSA) are among the glories of the reign, and led to hostilities with Venice. After capturing See also:

ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Jezair, i.e. The Islands)

Algiers, an attack by this famous See also:

ADMIRAL

admiral on See also:

TUNIS

Tunis was repulsed with the aid of Spain, but in the Mediterranean he maintained a hotly-contested struggle with Charles's admiral, See also:

ANDREA, GIOVANNI (1275-1348)

Andrea See also:

DORIA, ANDREA (1466-156o)

Doria. Venice was in See also:

ALLIANCE

alliance with Charles, and her possessions were consequently attacked by Turkey by land and by sea, many islands, including See also:

SYRA, or SYROS (anc. E6pos, perhaps Homeric lapin}, a Greek island in the middle of the Cyclades, which in the 19th century became the commercial centre of the Archipelago, and is also the residence of the nomarch of the Cyclades and the seat of the centr

Syra and Tinos, falling before Barbarossa's assaults. See also:

CORFU (anc. and mod. Gr. KEpKvpa or Kopiupa, Lat. Corcyra)

Corfu was besieged, but unsuccessfully.

At See also:

PREVEZA, or PREVESA

Preveza Barbarossa defeated the papal and Venetian fleets under Doria. In 1540 the fort of Castelnuovo, the strongest point on the Dalmatian See also:

COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, was taken by the Venetians and recaptured by Barbarossa. Peace was then made on the terms that Turkey should retain her conquests and Venice should pay an indemnity of 300,000 ducats. Friendly relations had subsisted between Suleiman and Ferdinand during the expedition to Persia; but on the death of Zapolya in 1539 Ferdinand claimed Hungary and besieged Budapest with a large force. Suleiman determined to support the claims of Zapolya's See also:

INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant son, John Sigismund, and in 1541 set out in person. At the end of August he appeared before Budapest, the siege of which had already been raised by the defeat of the Austrians; the infant John Sigismund was carried into the sultan's camp, and the See also:

queen-See also:

MOTHER

mother, See also:

Isabella, was peremptorily ordered to evacuate the royal palace, though the sultan gave her a diploma in which he swore only to retain Budapest during the minority of her son. On the 2nd of See also:

SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September Suleiman entered the city, and to the ambassadors of Ferdinand, who came to offer a yearly sum if the sultan would recognize his claim to Hungary, he replied that he had taken See also:

possession of it by the sword and would negotiate only after the surrender of Gran, See also:

TATA, JAMSETJI NASARWANJI (1839-1904)

Tata, Vise-grad and See also:

SZEKESFEHERVAR (Ger., Stuhlweissenburg, Lat., Alba Regalis or Alba Regia)

Szekesfehervar. The war now continued vigorously by sea and land. The great expedition of the emperor Charles V. against Algiers ended in failure, his fleet being destroyed by a sudden storm (Oct. 31, 1541); and his See also:

DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic efforts to wean Barbarossa from his allegiance to the sultan fared no better. In 1542 a formal alliance was concluded between Suleiman and Francis I.; the Ottoman fleet was placed at the disposal of the king of France, and in August 1543, the Turks under Barbarossa, and the See also:

French under the See also:

DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

Enghien, laid siege to See also:

NICE

Nice. The town surrendered; but the citadel held out until, on the 8th of September, it was relieved by Andrea Doria.

Meanwhile on land Suleiman had taken full advantage of the European .situation to tighten his grip on Hungary. The attempt of the imperialists, under See also:

JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831—1907)

Joachim of See also:

BRANDENBURG

Brandenburg, to retake Budapest (September 1542), failed ignominiously; and in the following year Suleiman in person conducted a campaign which led to the conquest of Sikl6s, Gran, Szekesfehervar and Visegrad (1544). Everywhere the churches were turned into mosques; and the greater part of Hungary, divided into twelve sanjaks, became definitively a Turkish province. A truce, on the basis of uti possidetis, signed at Adrianople on the 19th of June 1547 for five years, between the sultan, the emperor and Ferdinand I. king of Hungary, recognized the Turkish conquests in Hungary; while, for the portion left to him, Ferdinand consented to pay an annual tribute of 30,000 ducats. John Sigismund was recognized as independent prince of Transylvania and of sixteen adjacent Hungarian counties, Queen Isabella to See also:

ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act as See also:

REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent during his minority. Suleiman was now free to resume operations against Persia. In the See also:

SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 1548 he set out on his See also:

ELEVENTH

eleventh campaign, which ended in the capture of Erzerum (August 16) and the conquest of Armenia and Georgia. But the See also:

Persian War dragged on, with varying See also:

FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune, for years, till after Suleiman had ravaged Persia it was concluded by the treaty—the first between shah and sultan—signed at Amasia on the 29th of May 1555• Meanwhile the war in Hungary had been resumed. Neither side had been careful to observe the terms of the treaty of 1547 the Turkish pashas in Hungary had raided Ferdinand's do-minions, while Ferdinand had been negotiating with See also:

FRATER, FRATER HOUSE

Frater Georgy (see See also:

MARTINUZZI, GEORGE [GYoRGY UTIESENovIc] (1482—1551)

MARTINUZZI) with a view to freeing Transylvania from the Ottoman suzerainty. When the sultan discovered that Martinuzzi, who was all-powerful in Transylvania, had actually arranged to See also:

hand over the country to Ferdinand, he threw the See also:

AUSTRIAN

Austrian ambassador into See also:

PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison, and in September 1551 sent an army, 8o,000 strong, under Mahommed Sokolli over the Danube. Several forts, and the important town of Lippa on the Marosch, fell at once, and siege was laid to Temesvar. This was raised after two months, and Martinuzzi took advantage of the retirement of the Turks to raise an army and recapture Lippa.

Before the surrender of the city, however, he was murdered by Ferdinand's orders on strong suspicion of treachery. The campaign of 1552 was disastrous for the Austrians; the Turks, under the command of Ahmed Pasha, defeated them at Szegedin and captured in turn Veszprem, Temesvar, Szolnok and other places. Their victorious career was only checked, in See also:

OCTOBER

October, by the raising of the siege of Erlau. In the spring of 1553 the victories of the Persians called for the sultan's presence in the East; a truce for six months was now concluded between the envoys of Ferdinand and the pasha of Budapest, and Austrian ambassadors were sent to Constantinople to arrange a peace. But the negotiations dragged on without result; the war continued with hideous barbarities on both sides; and it was not until the 1st of June 1562 that it was concluded by the treaty signed at See also:

PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha)

Prague by Ferdinand, now emperor. Suleiman kept the possessions he had won by the sword, Temesvar, Szolnok, Tata and other places in Hungary; Transylvania was assigned to John Sigismund, the See also:

HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG

Habsburg claim to interference being categorically denied; Ferdinand See also:

BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound himself to pay, not only the annual tribute of 30,000 ducats, but all the arrears that had meanwhile accumulated. Even this treaty, however, was but an apparent See also:

settlement. A year passed before the Latin and Turkish texts of the treaty were harmonized; and meanwhile irregular fighting continued on all the borders. In 1564 Ferdinand died, and was succeeded by Maximilian II. The new emperor attacked See also:

TOKAJ (or TOKAY)

Tokaj, which was in Turkish possession; the tribute had been allowed again to fall into arrears; and to all this was added that Mahommed Sokolli, the new grand vizier (1565), pressed for new war to wipe out the disgrace of the failure of the Ottoman attack on See also:

Malta (May-September 1565). In May 1566 the war See also:

broke out, Suleiman, now seventy-two years old, again leading his army in person. In August he laid siege to Szigetvar with ioo,000 men; but on the 5th of September, while preparations were being made for a final assault, the sultan died.

His death was, however, kept See also:

SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret, and on the 8th the fortress fell. The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent marked the See also:

ZENITH (from the Arabic)

zenith of the Ottoman pcwer. At the time of his death the Turkish Empire extended from near the frontiers of Germany to the frontiers of Persia. The Black Sea was practically a Turkish See also:

lake, only the Circassians on the east coast retaining their independence; and as a result of the See also:

WARS

wars with Persia the whole Euphrates valley, with Bagdad, had fallen into the sultan's power, now established on the Persian Gulf. The Venetians had been driven from the Morea and the islands of the Archipelago; and, except a See also:

STRIP

strip of the Dalmatian coast and the little See also:

mountain state of See also:

MONTENEGRO

Montenegro, the whole of the Balkan See also:

peninsula was in Turkish hands. In the Mediterranean, See also:

CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete and Malta yet survived as outposts of Christendom; but the northern coasts of See also:

Africa from Egypt to See also:

MOROCCO

Morocco acknowledged the supremacy of the sultan, whose sea power in the Mediterranean had become a See also:

FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor to be reckoned with in European politics, threatening not only the islands, but the very See also:

heart of Christendom, Italy itself, and capable—as the alliance with France against Charles V. had shown—of being thrown with decisive See also:

WEIGHT

weight into the balance of European rivalries. The power of the Ottomans at sea was maintained during this period by a See also:

SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of notable captains, such as Khair-ed-din The Turkish and his son See also:

HASSAN

Hassan, Piale, Torgud, Sali Reis and sea power. Piri Reis. Of these the two first are separately noticed (see BARBAROSSA). Piale, a Croatian who had been brought up in the imperial See also:

HAREM

harem and succeeded Sinan as capudan-pasha, crowned a series of victories over the galleys of Andrea Doria by the capture of the See also:

ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

JERBA

Jerba, off See also:

Tripoli (July 31, 1560). For this he was rewarded with the hand of one of the sultan's grand-daughters. He later became the second vizier of the empire, and, as a supporter of Sokolli, was in power till his death in 1575.

Torgud, also the son of Christian parents, was a native of the sanjak of Mentesha in Asia Minor, and began his career as a soldier in the Ottoman sea service. After spending some time as a Genoese See also:

GALLEY (derived through the 0. Fr. galee, galie, from the Med. Lat. galea, Ital. galea, Port. gale, of uncertain origin; from the Med. Lat. variant form galera are derived the Mod. Fr. galere, Span. and Ital. galera)

galley-slave, he turned See also:

CORSAIR (through the Fr. from the Med. Lat. cursarius, a pirate; cursus, or cursa, from currere, to run, being Late Latin for a plundering foray)

corsair and became the terror of the Mediterranean coasts. He seized Mandia, a strong See also:

POST

post on a See also:

TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue of land about 43 M. south of See also:

Susa in See also:

TUNISIA (Regency of Tunis)

Tunisia, and made this the centre of his piracies till, during his absence raiding the See also:

SPANISH

Spanish coasts, it was bombarded and destroyed by an expedition sent by Charles V. (September 10, 1550). Torgud was now summoned to Constantinople to See also:

ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer for piracies committed on the friendly galleys of Venice; but he sailed instead to Morocco, and there for two years defied the sultan's authority. But Suleiman, who needed the aid of the corsairs against Malta, pardoned him, and he was given the command of the expedition against Tripoli, which he captured. He now turned against See also:

CORSICA (Fr. Corse)

Corsica, captured See also:

BASTIA

Bastia (August 1553) and on his return to Constantinople, laden with See also:

BOOTY (apparently influenced by " boot," O. Eng. bot, ad-vantage or profit, through an adaptation from an earlier form cognate with Ger. Beute and Fr. butin)

booty and slaves, chastised the insurgent Albanians. He was rewarded by Suleiman with the governorship of Tripoli, which he held till his death. He was killed during the unsuccessful attack on Malta, which he commanded (1565). See also:

Salt Reis, also by See also:

BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth a Christian of Asia Minor, was likewise successful as a corsair; he distinguished himself especially at the capture of Tunis, and succeeded Hassan Barbarossa as beylerbey of Algiers. Other captains carried the Turkish arms down the Arabian and Persian gulfs far out into the See also:

INDIAN

Indian Ocean. Of these the most remarkable was Piri Reis, See also:

NEPHEW

nephew of Kamil Reis, the famous corsair who, under Bayezid II., had swept the See also:

AEGEAN

Aegean and Mediterranean.

Piri sailed into the Persian Gulf, took See also:

MUSCAT, MUSKAT

Muscat, and laid siege to Ormuz. But the approach of the Portuguese fleet put him to See also:

FLIGHT

flight; some of his vessels were wrecked; and on his return by way of Egypt he was arrested at Cairo and executed. He had compiled a sea-See also:

ATLAS

atlas (the Bahrije) of the Aegean and Mediterranean seas, every nook and cranny of which he had explored, with an See also:

account of the currents, soundings, landing-places, inlets and harbours. Another See also:

LITERARY

literary See also:

SEAMAN, OWEN (1861– )

seaman of this period was Sidi Ali, celebrated under his poetic See also:

PSEUDONYM (Gr. >l ev&,vuµos, having a false name, ¢Evirls, false and ovoµa, name)

pseudonym of Katibi (or Katibi See also:

RUMI, (1207-1273)

Rumi, to distinguish him from the Persian poet of the same name). He was no more successful than Piri or his successor Murad in fighting the elements and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf; but he was happier in his fate. Driven, with the remnant of his See also:

SHIPS

ships, into the Indian Ocean, he landed with fifty companions on the coast of India and travelled back to Turkey by way of See also:

SIND

Sind, See also:

BALUCHISTAN

Baluchistan, Khorassan and Persia. He wrote an account of this three years' See also:

JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey, for which he was re-warded by Suleiman with an See also:

OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office and a See also:

PENSION (Lat. pensio, a payment, from pendere, to weigh, to pay)

pension. He was the author also of a mathematical work on the use of the See also:

ASTROLABE (from Gr. liar pop, star, and Aa(3eiv, to take)

astrolabe and of a See also:

BOOK

book (Muhit, " the ocean ") on the navigation of the Indian seas. At the See also:

close of Suleiman's reign the Turkish army numbered nearly 200,000 men, including the Janissaries, whose total he almost doubled, raising them to 20,000. He See also:

IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im- Reforms of proved the See also:

LAWS

laws and institutions established by sidefman L his predecessors and adapted them to the require- ments of the age; to him are due important modifications in the feudal system, aimed at maintaining the fiefs in a really effective See also:

CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition. The codes of law were by him revised and improved, and he was the first sultan to enter into relations with foreign states. In 1534 Jean de La See also:

FORK (Lat. furca)

Fork, a See also:

knight of St John of See also:

Jerusalem, came to Constantinople as first permanent French ambassador to the See also:

PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte, and in February 1535 were signed the first See also:

CAPITULATIONS (from Lat. ca put, or its Low-Latin diminutive capitulum, as indicating the form in which these acts were set down in chapters "; the Gr. equivalent cephaleosis, KediaXalwocc, is occasionally used in works of the 17th century)

Capitulations (q.v.) with France.

A short See also:

SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of the administration and state of the country at this time may find place here. Successively transferred from Brusa to Adrianople and thence to Constantinople, the seat of government was at first little more than the camp Ottoman of a conqueror. After the conquest of the imperial polity t° city the sultans began to adopt the pomp and splendour the It;th of eastern sovereigns, and largely copied the system,°tOry' ready to hand, of the Byzantine emperors. Affairs of state were at first discussed at the imperial See also:

DIVAN (Arabic divan)

divan, where the great dignitaries were convened at appointed See also:

HOURS, CANONICAL

hours. Until the reign of Mahommed the Conqueror the sultan presided in person; but a rough Anatolian See also:

PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant penetrating one day to the council and exclaiming, " Which of you might be the sultan? I've come to make a complaint ! " it was thought that in future it would be more consonant with the imperial dignity for the See also:

SOVEREIGN

sovereign to remain concealed behind a grating where, unseen, he could hear all that was said. Towards the See also:

MIDDLE

middle of Suleiman's reign even this practice was abandoned, and the sultans henceforth attended the divans only on the See also:

DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of pay to the troops or the reception of a foreign ambassador, which occasions were usually made to coincide. The divan accompanied the sultan on military expeditions. As established by Mahommed II., the officials of the state were divided into four classes: (I) administrative; (2) ecclesiastical; (3) secretarial and (4) military. The administration of kazas, or cantons, was usually entrusted to the cadis and the holders of the more important fiefs; the sanjaks, or departments, were ruled by alai beys or mir-i-livas (colonels or brigadiers), pashas with one horse-tail; the vilayets, or provinces, by beylerbeys or mir-i-mirans (lord of lords), pashas with two horse-tails; these were all originally military See also:

OFFICERS

officers, who, in addition to their administrative functions, were charged with the See also:

DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of mustering and commanding the feudal levies in war time. Above them were the beylerbeys of See also:

ANATOLIA (Gr. avaroX,7, sunrise, i.e. eastern land)

Anatolia and Rumelia, who served under the orders of the commander-in-chief.

The title of vizier was See also:

BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by six or seven persons simultaneously; the grand vizier was the chief of these and exercised supreme authority, being invested with the sultan's signet. He often commanded an army in person, and was then given the title of serdari-ekrem (generalissimo) ; one of the subordinate viziers remained behind as kaimmakam, or locum tenens. The duties of the other viziers were limited to attending the divan; they were called kubbe or See also:

CUPOLA (Ital., from Lat. cupula, small cask or vault, cupa, tub)

cupola viziers from the fact that the council met under a cupola; they were pashas with three horse-tails, and were attended by large retinues, having generally achieved distinction as beylerbeys. These officers were usually chosen from among the more promising of the youths selected by the devshurme, or system of forced See also:

levy for See also:

MANNING, HENRY EDWARD (1808-1892)

manning the ranks of the Janissaries: hence so many of the statesmen of Turkey were of non-Mussulman origin. Besides these members of the secretarial class, such as nishanjis and defterdars, as well as regular army officers, and occasionally members of the ecclesiastical class, or ulema, See also:

rose to the See also:

RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of vizier. The highest dignitaries of the ecclesiastical class were at first the kazaskers, or military See also:

JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges, of Europe and Asia; later the office of Sheikh-ul-Islam was created as the supreme authority in matters See also:

RELATING

relating to the Church and the sacred law. Promotion was regular, but was obtainable only by entering at an See also:

early age one of the medresses or colleges; the student, after passing through the successive degrees of danishmend, mulazim and muderris, became first a molla, then a See also:

JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge, rising to the higher ranks as fortune and opportunity offered. In the time of Bayezid II. the post of nakibul-eshraf, or registrar of the sherifs, or descendants of the See also:

PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

Prophet, was created. The secretarial class consisted of six categories: the nishanjis, the defterdars, the ress"s, the defter emini, the shakk-i-sani (or second class) defterdars and the shakk-i-salis (or third class) defterdars. The first named were charged with the duty of revising and duly executing the decisions of the divan respecting the See also:

ASSIGNMENT, ASSIGNATION, ASSIGNEE

assignment of lands to warriors and the apportioning of conquered 'territories. They were men of great culture, and many historians, poets and writers belong to this c14ss. The defterdar was practically the See also:

MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of finance.

The refs was the secretary-general of the divan, and in more See also:

MODERN

modern times became minister for foreign affairs. The defter emini kept the registers for the nishanji, whose place he took on emergency, the others acted as secretaries and clerks. The military class was divided into two categories: (1) the regular paid troops who were quartered in See also:

barracks and were known as ' slaves of the palace "; (2) the feudal levies who received no pay and were called upon to serve only in war-time. The Janissaries (q.v.) belonged to the first See also:

CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category. The rigid regulations for See also:

ADMISSION

admission to their ranks were soon relaxed: at the close of the Persian war in 1590 their total amounted to 50,000. The regular troops comprised also armourers (jebeji), from 6000 to 8000 men, and six squadrons of See also:

CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry; these were recruited in the same way as the Janissaries, and their numbers were raised by Murad III. to 20,000. `There were also bostanjis, or See also:

FOREST

forest-See also:

GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

guards, numbering about 5000, besides See also:

LOCAL

local troops in distant and frontier provinces, and about 20,000 akinjis, or See also:

LIGHT

light troops, in Europe, who carried out forays in the enemies' country. The fiefs were not hereditary, and were held directly from the sultan. On the conquest of a country the lands were apportioned by the nishanjis, who first computed the tithe revenueof each See also:

VILLAGE

village, its See also:

POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, See also:

woods, pasturage, &c.; and divided it into the three classes of fiefs (khas, zaamet and timar), or into vakuf (pious endowments) or pasturage. Any See also:

ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate with a See also:

revenue exceeding Ioo,000 aspres was a khas, and was conferred on a prince or on a high dignitary as long as he held his post; for each 5000 aspres of revenue one armed See also:

WARRIOR

warrior had to be furnished in war. Fiefs with a revenue of from 20,000 to 100,000 aspres were called ziamets and were conferred on similar terms on inferior officers, usually for life or during good behaviour. Fiefs with a revenue of from 3000 to 20,000 aspres were timars, furnishing one armed warrior for every 3000 aspres' revenue; the See also:

grant of a fief was conditional on obligatory See also:

RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence.

End of Article: BIBLIOGRAPHYI

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