See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Their literature had its roots in their See also:

• POLITICAL

A natural See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

Some very ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may have belonged to this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

Such war-ballads were the materials from which the earliest epic poetry of Greece was constructed. By an " epic " poem the Greeks meant a narrative of heroic See also:

• ACTION

A better authenticated tradition connects See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the Iliad and the Odyssey to be the work of one See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems founded on the legends of the Trojan war, and intended as introductions or continuations to the Iliad and the ten years between the Iliad and the Odyssey; the Lay of Telegonus, by Eugammon of See also:

• CYRENE [mod. Ain Shahat-Grenna]

The seasons and the labours of the Boeotian See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

Their traditional title is—Hymns or Preludes of Homer and tEie Homeridae. The second of the alternative designations is the true one. The HomeNc The pieces are not " hymns " used in formal worship, hymns. but " preludes " or prefatory addresses (irpooiµta) with which the rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic poetry. The " prelude " might be addressed to the presiding See also:

• GOD

preserved the names and subjects of some of these; but the' fragments are very scanty. The Nostoi or Homeward Voyages, by Agias (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the See also:

• GAP

epos to Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially a prophet. elegy. The See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

Such a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy, were in turn its themes; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of the poet and his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

The word ZaµOos+ Iambic verse. iambus (See also:

• HARROW

The elegy of See also:

• MIMNERMUS

'At the same time the,continuity of the music permits pauses to the voice—'pauses necessary as reliefs after a See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

and commercial importance. But the strife of oligarchy and democracy was active; the Lesbian nobles were often driven by revolution to See also:

• EXCHANGE

They have not the pure style, the flexible See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

Pindar (518–c. 443) was born in Boeotia of a Dorian stock; thus, as Ionian and Dorian elements meet in Simonides, so Dorian and Aeolian elements meet in Pindar. Simonides was perhaps the most See also:

• TENDER

They consist of thirteen (or fourteen) epinicia, two of which celebrate the same victories as two odes of Pindar. The papyrus also contains six odes for the festivals of gods or heroes. The poems contain valuable See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

Lastly, lyric poetry had arisen to satisfy a twofold need—to be the more intense utterance of personal emotion, or to give choral voice, at stirring moments, to the faith or fame, the See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

Origin of drama. Tragedy. rustic jest. Then the See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

Aeschylus is also said to have made various improvements of detail in See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

He was only fifteen years younger than Sophocles; but when he entered on his poetical career, the old inspirations of tragedy were already failing. Euripides marks a period of transition in the tragic art, and is, in fact, the mediator between the classical and the romantic drama. The myths and traditions with which the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

Comedy represented the lighter side, as tragedy the graver side, of the Dionysiac worship; it was the joy of spring following the gloom of winter. The process of growth was comedy. nearly the same as in tragedy; but the Dorians, not the Ionians of Attica, were the first who added dialogue to the comic chorus. See also:

• SUSARION

In the Birds, Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusae and Frogs (414–405) a greater reserve may be perceived. Lastly, in the Ecclesiazusae and the See also:

• PLUTUS

The Old Comedy, as we see it in the earlier plays of Aristophanes, was probably the most powerful See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

A political cause worked in the same direction. In the Eastern monarchies the king was the centre of all, and the royal records afforded the elements of history from a remote date. The Greek nation was broken up into small states, each busied with its own affairs and its own men. It was the collision between the Greek and the See also:

• BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

Other logographi were See also:

• CHARON

Both his strength and his weakness are seen most clearly when he is contrasted with that other historian who was strictly his contemporary and who yet seems divided from him by centuries. Thucydides was only thirteen years younger than Herodotus; but the intellectual space between the men is so great that they seem to belong to different ages. Herodotus is the Thacy• first artist in historical writing; Thucydides is the dides. first thinker. Herodotus interweaves two threads of See also:

• CAUSATION

Thucydides abstains, as a rule, from moral comment; but he tells his story as no one could have told it who did not profoundly feel its tragic force; and his general claim to the merit of impartiality is not invalidated by the possible exceptions—difficult to estimate—in the cases of See also:

• CLEON (d. 422 B.C.)

The chief blot on the Hellenica is the author's partiality to See also:

• SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

See also:

• TIMAEUS (c. 345—c. 250 B.e.)

From the middle of the 4th century B.C. the Isocratic style of prose became general in Greek literature. From the school of See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

See also:

• DINARCHUS

Aristotle's influence on the form of Attic prose literature would probably have been considerable if his Rhetoric had been published while Attic oratory had still a vigorous life before it. But in this, as in other departments of mental effort, it was Aristotle's See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

Their art, whatever its form might be, was the concentrated and ennobled expression of their political existence. Aeschylus breathed into tragedy the inspiration of one who had himself fought the great fight of national liberation. Sophocles was the colleague of Pericles in a high military command. Thucydides describes the operations of the Peloponnesian War with the practical knowledge of one who had been in See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

A work of See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

The mixture of races would always in some measure distinguish even the outward life of such a community from that of a pure Greek state; and the facility with which Greek civilization was adopted would vary in different places. See also:

• SYRIA

Even in its poetry spontaneous See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

Aristarchus (156 B.C.), the greatest in a Erudition long line of Alexandrian critics, set the example of a s nce. more thorough method in revising and interpreting the ancient texts, and may in this sense be said to have become the founder of scientific scholarship. The critical studies of Alexandria, carried on by the followers of Aristarchus, gradually formed the basis for a science of grammar. The earliest Greek grammar is that of Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166), a pupil of Aristarchus. See also:

• TRANSLATION

The Graeco-Roman period in the literature of Hellenism may be dated from the Roman subjugation of Greece. " Greece made a See also:

• CAPTIVE (from Lat. capere, to take)

The first part of the Graeco-Roman period may be defined as extending from 146 B.C. to the close of the Roman See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

A.D. 529. An immense See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

(2) Erudition and Science. The learned labours of the Alexandrian schools were continued in all their various See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

There were also many Christian romances in Greek, usually of a religious tendency. See also:

• ALCIPHRON

The laity became more and more estranged from the Greek literature—however intrinsically pure and See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

1896); W. See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

F. Heffelbower, N.Y., 1904); also the general sketches by U. von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in Die Kultur der Gegenwart, i. 8 (1905), by A. Gercke in the Sammlung See also:

• GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN

See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

The close of t/oa. the Byzantine period is clearly marked by the year 1453, at which date, with the fall of the Eastern empire, the peculiar culture and literary life of the Byzantines came to an end. It is only as regards the beginning of the Byzantine period that any doubts exist. There are no sufficient grounds for dating it from Justinian, as was formerly often done. In See also:

• SURVEYING

Many centuries passed before the final victory of the new religious ideas and the new spirit in public and private intellectual and moral life. The last noteworthy remnants of paganism disappeared as late as the 6th and 7th centuries. The last great educational establishment which rested upon pagan See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

For, although the Latin character of the empire was at first completely retained, even after its final See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

The non-Greek portions of the Eastern empire were not, from the outset, gradually incorporated into the state from a Greek centre, as were the provinces in the West from a Latin centre. They had been acquired in the old period of the homogeneous Latin Imperium. In the centuries immediately following the division of the empire, the idea of Hellenizing the Eastern provinces could not take root, owing to the fact that Latin was retained, at least in principle, as the state language. During the later centuries, in the non-Greek parts, centrifugal tendencies and the destructive inroads of barbarians began on all sides; and the government was too much occupied with the all but impossible task of preserving the political unity of the empire to entertain seriously the wider aim of an assimilation of language and culture. More-over, the Greeks did not possess that enormous political See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

In the East, at the earliest period of its See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

The old glorious name " Hellene " was used under the empire and even during the middle ages in a contemptuous sense—" Heathen "—and has only in quite modern times, on the formation of the See also:

• KINGDOM

In respect of the See also:

• WEALTH

For instance, the three great fathers of See also:

• CAPPADOCIA

But this attempt also was foiled by the classical reaction of the 19th century. Hence it comes about that Greek literature even in the aoth century employs grammatical forms which were obsolete long before the loth century. Thus the Greeks, as regards their literary language, came into a cul de See also:

• SAC

The great classical period of Greek theological literature is that of the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this result—some of them See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

The greater portion of Greek literature from the close of ancient times down to the See also:

• THRESHOLD

In See also:

• BYZANTIUM

Yet his chief merit lies not so much in his polemical speeches against the Iconoclasts, and in his much admired but over-refined poetry, as in his great dogmatic work, 7'he See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

In the reign of Alexius I. See also:

• COMNENUS

Among those who shared his views are conspicuous the historian Nicephorus See also:

• GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS (c. 1295-1360)

Hagiography, i.e. the literature of the acts of the martyrs and the lives of the saints, forms an independent See also:

• GROUP