See also:

• PART

The metal point is dragged over a surface of wood or parchment that has been grounded with finely powdered See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

Many animal and vegetable products are sticky and ultimately dry hard, while See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

This is the See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

Silicate of potash, employed to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

Of soluble vegetable media the most used are gums of various kinds. These are common " temperas " or tempera media, and, with See also:

• GLYCERIN, GLYCERINE

When these wax or oil emulsions are dry they have the waterproof character of their non-soluble constituents. Lastly, it must be noticed that certain substances used in the graphic arts—some of which possess in themselves a certain unctuousness—can be, as it were, rubbed into a suitably roughened, and at the same time yielding, ground, to which they will adhere, though loosely, without binding material. This is the case with charcoal, chalks and pencil. The same See also:

• PROPERTY

In painting processes proper fresco takes the lead. It is in its theory the simplest of all, and at the same time it has produced some of the most splendid results recorded in the See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

In Greece Proper paintings on terra-See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

The tempera processes were accordingly in vogue in early medieval times for wall-paintings (except to some extent in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

Silver gives yellow, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

The terra-cotta See also:

• PLAQUE

A special kind of Greek vase was the so-called " polychrome lekuthos," a small upright vessel, the clay of which was covered with a white " slip " on which 'figure designs were painted in lively tints. The technique is not quite understood, but the colours were certainly fired. There is an article on " The Technical History of White Lecythi " in the See also:

• AMERICAN

At See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Herringham, Lond., 1899); See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

G. See also:

• CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN (1837-188o)

It might now be (1) finished with a plain See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

Italian writers on the subject, such as Vasari, are generally so taken up with the pictorial design represented on the wall that the more essential characteristics of the process in itself are lost sight of. To Vitruvius the work is coloured plaster, not a picture on plaster, and he shows how important it is that the plaster should be finished with a fine surface of gleaming white so as to light up the transparent film of colour that clothes it. It is the result of such care in classical times that a surface of Pompeian plastering, self-tinted " a fresco," is beautiful without there being any question of pattern or design. This beauty and See also:

• POLISH

This is a classical process referred to by Vitruvius under the name " ganosis," as applied to the nude parts of marble statues, possibly to See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

It is true that there are certain difficulties connected with Pompeian fresco practice, but the description of the process as a wet process in Vitruvius and Pliny is so absolutely unmistakable that Berger's theory must without hesitation be rejected. The history of the fresco technique remains at the same time obscure. Here again Berger offers an interesting See also:

• SUGGESTION

To return now to the technical questions from which this historical digression took its rise, it will be easily seen that the process of painting in fresco must be a rapid one, for it must be completed before the plaster has had time to dry. Hence only a certain portion of the work in hand is undertaken at a time, and onlyso much of the final coat of plaster, called by the Italians intonaco is laid by the plasterer as will correspond to the amount the artist has laid out for himself in the time allowed him by the condition of the plaster. At the end of this time the plaster not painted on is cut away See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

37). It has been noticed as one of the difficulties about the Pompeian frescoes, that joints hardly occur, or at any rate that larger surfaces of plaster were covered by the painter at a single time than was the case among Renaissance artists, and a conjectural .explanation has been offered based on the fact that the ancient plaster ground, laid on in many successive coats while in each case the previous one was still humid, was thicker and would hold more moisture than the more modern intonaco, and would accordingly allow the artist longer time in which to carry out his work. Alberti, Armenini, and Palomino only contemplate one or two thin coats over the See also:

• ORIGINAL

Therefore let those who seek to work upon the wall, paint with a manly See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

See also:

• MASACCIO (1402-1429)

The lime should be prepared from a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

24), till " the surface is in such a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

Modern frescoists have found that " the tints first applied sink in and look faint, so that it is necessary sometimes to go over the surface repeatedly with the same colour before the full effect is gained " (First Report, p. 24), but it is well to allow in each case some minutes to elapse before touching any spot a second time. For the hair the Italians would make three tints suffice, the high lights again following with white. The draperies are broadly treated. After the whole has been laid in, in monochrome, with the green pigment, the folds would be marked out with the deepest of the three tints for See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

Such retouches are always hard and " wiry," and are as much as possible to be avoided. As examples of execution in fresco no works are better than those of Luini. He painted rapidly and thinly, securing thereby a transparency of effect that did not however preclude richness. Heath Wilson indeed says of his painting that " it may be compared to that of See also:

• RUBENS, PETER PAUL (1577-164o)

The action of this acid—a million tons of which are said to be belched out into the London See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

278). The process called " fresco-secco " is a method of lime painting on a plaster surface that has been allowed to dry. It is described by Theophilus in the Schedula of about A.D. 1100; and Mr Charles Heath Wilson in 1843 wrote of it as " extensively used in Italy at present and with great success." It is of course obvious that paintings must often be executed on walls the plastering of which is already dry, and on which the true fresco process is imprac-ticable. Some kind of painting in tempera is thus needful, and " fresco-secco " uses for this the lime that is the very constituent of the plaster. The process is thoroughly to drench the dry surface of the plaster the night before with water with which a little lime or baryta water has been mixed, and to renew the wetting the next morning. The artist then fixes up his cartoon, pounces the outlines, and sets to work to paint with the same pigments as used in buon fresco mixed with lime or baryta water or with a little slaked lime. If the wall become too dry a See also:

• SYRINGE (Gr. ovpryE, reed, pipe)

H. Wilson praises the work for its convenience, See also:

• ECONOMY

1630, Feb. 15, 1884; Mrs See also:

• LEA, HENRY CHARLES (1825–1909)

For example, in 1881 Professor Schraudolph of Munich painted in this process the front of the Hotel Bellevue in that city. This improved water-glass painting was introduced to notice in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

The ground is very carefully prepared, and over a thoroughly See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

Finally a solution of paraffin in See also:

• BENZENE, C6H6

This when dry, forwhich two or three See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

This was still in common use in the 16th century, but Vasari himself had evolved a better recipe which he gives us in the 8th chapter of his " Introduction " to Painting. Over undercoatings of ordinary plaster he See also:

• LAYS

In France Puvis de Chavannes used some preparation to secure a matt effect in his fine decorative oil painting on canvas. § 40. Tempera Painting on Walls.—This is a very ancient and widely diffused technique, but the processes of it do not differ in principle from those of panel painting in the same method. It is accordingly dealt with under tempera painting in general (§ 43). § 41. Encaustic Painting on Walls.—(See See also:

• SCHULTZE, MAX JOHANN SIGISMUND (1825-1874)

A German recipe prepared by Andreas See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

It there represented an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

They also saponified wax by boiling it with potash so as to form what was called " Punic wax " (Pliny xxi. 84 seq.), and this emulsion may be reduced with water, and at the same time combines with oil and with size, gum, egg and other temperas.. Wax, Pliny says, may be coloured and used for painting—ad edendas similitudines (loc. cit.); but as the name " encaustic " implies, and as we gather from another of Pliny's phrases, ceris pingere ac picturam inurere (See also:

• XXXV

Here three kinds of encaustic painting are mentioned, two old and one new (the comparative See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

Berger, on the other hand, believes that the coloured wax pastes were manipulated hot with the " cauterium," which would be maintained in a heated condition, and that there was no subsequent process of " burning in." Flinders Petrie is of opinion that, even in the (From a photograph by W. A. Mansell & Co.) TECHNIQUE] case of the washes laid on with the brush, pure melted wax was employed and not a compound or emulsion, such as is generally assumed. Berger believes in a mixture of wax, oil and resin. It is interesting to note that the distinguished modern painter, See also:

• ARNOLD
• ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801)
• ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1666-1714)
• ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888)
• ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740--18o2)
• ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904)
• ARNOLD, THOMAS (1745-1842)

Polychrome ornament on terra-cotta for architectural embellishment may have been fixed by the glaze as in ordinary vase painting, but Pliny says that See also:

• AGRIPPA
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, I
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, II
• AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS

See also:

• LLOYD, EDWARD (1845— )
• LLOYD, WILLIAM (1627–1717)
• LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS (1813–1893)

The former (ch. 165) mentions seven or eight or ten coats of colours tempered with yolk alone, that must have been well thinned with water. This point will be returned to later on. The yolk of egg is really itself an emulsion as it contains about 3o% of oil or fatty matter, though in its fluid state it combines readily with water. " Egg yolk," writes Professor Church (Chemistry, p. 74 ), must be regarded as essentially an oil medium. As it dries the oil hardens," and ultimately becomes a substance not unlike See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

In fact in Italy the word " tempera," as used by Vasari and other writers, generally means the egg medium. On the other hand size or gum was more common north of the Alps. It is in most cases very difficult to decide what temperas were in vogue in different regions and at the various epochs of the art, and the following must not be taken for more than an approximate statement of the facts. As far as it is known, the binding material in ancient Egypt was for the most part size, while Greek influence from about 600 B.C. onwards may have led to the use of wax emulsion (Punic wax). For paintings on mummy cases, and on papyrus scrolls, the medium may have been size or gum. Professor Flinders Petrie says it was See also:

• ACACIA

102) shows that the Greek panel painters, when not " encaustae," used a water tempera, but whether size or egg was its main constituent we do not know. See also:

• APELLES

Tempera panels painted with egg yolk are, like the gum tempera panels of Theophilus, to be varnished with vernice liquida (oil varnish). In these media were executed all the fine tempera panels of the early Italian and early German See also:

• SCHOOLS

In the actual painting, which is on the non-gilded part of the panel, the utmost attention is paid to the ornamentation of brocaded draperies, in which gold is used as a ground and is made to show in parts, while glazes of pigment mixed with drying oil are also used. Directions for painting the flesh, which is to be done after the draperies and background, are precise. There is an under-painting in a mono-chrome of terra verte and white, and over this in successive coats of great thinness the flesh-tints are spread, every tint being laid in its right position on the face, the darkest flesh-tint being shaded down to the terra verte and softened off in a See also:

• TENDER

A perfectly modulated monochrome of light and shade fills the outline, apparent through the overlaid glory of colour, over which again is thrown a See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

The pigments are tempered with size or gum, and body is given to them by whitening, See also:

• PIPE

Certain vegetable oils dry naturally in the air by a process of oxydization, and this drying or hardening is not accompanied by any considerable shrinking, nor by any change of colour; so that oil and substances mixed with it do not alter in volume nor in appearance as a consequence of the drying process. There may be a slow subsequent alteration in the direction of darkening or becoming more yellow; but this is another matter. Among these oils the most important is linseed oil extracted from the seeds of the See also:

• FLAX

34), he prescribes such a solution as a sort of emollient ointment for wounds, so it is clear that the oil he has in view is non-drying olive oil that would not make a varnish. In two passages of his Natural History (xv. 24–32, See also:

• XXIII

The passages in Theophilus (i. chs. xx. and See also:

• XXVI

Oil painting accordingly, though in an unsatisfactory form,is established at least as early as A.D. 1100. What had been its previous history? Here it is necessary to take note of the interesting suggestion of Berger, that it was gradually evolved in the early Christian centuries from the then declining encaustic technique of classical times. We learn from Dioscorides, who dates rather later than the time of Augustus, that resin was mixed with wax for the painting of ships, and when drying oils came into use they would make with wax and resin a medium requiring less heat to make it fluid than wax alone, and one therefore more convenient for the brush-form of encaustic. Berger suspects the presence of such a medium in some of the mummy-case portraits, and points for See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

126 seq.), contains a remarkable recipe for preparing " oil for the colours." Linseed or hempseed or old nut oil is to be boiled with certain dryers, of which white See also:

• COPPERAS (Fr. couperose; Lat. cupri rosa. the flower of copper)

And in this way paint flesh or anything you please, and likewise mountains, trees and anything else." In other chapters Cennino recommends certain portions of a painting in tempera to be put in in oil, and nowhere does he give a hint that the work in oil gave any trouble through its unwillingness to dry. His medium appears, however, to have been thick, and perhaps somewhat viscous (ch. 92). This combination of oil paint and tempera on the same piece is a matter, as we shall presently see, of some significance. In the De re aedificatoria of L. B. Alberti (written about 1450), vi. 9, there is a mention of " a new discovery of laying on colours with oil of linseed so that they resist for ever all injuries from weather and climate," which may have some reference to so-called " German " practice. The next Italian writer who says anything to the purpose is Filarete, who wrote a long treatise on See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

641) speaks of oil painting as specially practised in " Germany," and says it is a fine art when anyone knows how to See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

Pay from our See also:

• TREASURY

An See also:

• EXHIBITION

The mixing of varnish with oil for a medium was also known, and indeed the oleum preciosum may be the real " invention " of which Alberti and Filarete had only vaguely heard, and of which the Van Eycks later on received the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

" Dombild," also by See also:

• STEPHAN, HEINRICH VON (1831-1897)

There is as yet no proof that the Van Eycks really used such a medium, though it is a preparation possible at their time, and when thinned by a process of emulsification with egg, as Dr Laurie suggests, would be a serviceable one; but they and the other early oil painters certainly used a method, and in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

There is some evidence that in many cases these underpaintings were in tempera, which would have the advantage of drying more quickly than under-paintings in oil, and Boschini (Le Ricche minere della pittura veneziana, 1674) expressly says that the blues in Venetian paintings, e.g. by Veronese, were painted often a guazzo. There was a reason, however, why the Venetians would alter the traditional practice of the Flemish forerunners. The latter were almost entirely panel painters, while the Venetians used canvas. Now certain media, like the hard pine-balsams which Dr Laurie thinks were the basis of the Van Eyck medium, are suitable for the immovable surfaces of a well-grounded panel, but would be liable to crack on canvas which is more or less yielding. Hence the tougher oil vehicles were in advanced Venetian painting exclusively employed. This distinction between the thin transparent pigments and those of an opaque body, which is as old as oil painting in any form, becomes in the hands of Bellini and the later Venetians the fundamental principle of the technique. The full advantage of this thinness and transparency is gained by the use of the pigments in question as " glazes " over a previously laid solid impasto. This impasto may be modelled up in monochrome or in any desired tints chosen to work in with the colours of the superimposed glazes. Effects of colour of great depth and brilliancy may thus be obtained, and after the glaze has been floated over the surface a touch of the thumb, where the underpainting is loaded and lights are required, will so far thin it as to let the underlying colour show through and blend with the deeper tint of the glaze in the shadows. Thus in the noble Veronese in the London National Gallery, called the " See also:

• CONSECRATION (Lat. consecrallo, from con and sacrare, " to make sacred ")

The practice of painting into a wet glaze or rubbing was especially characteristic of the later Flemings, with Rubens at their head, and this again, though a polar opposite to that of the Venetians, is also derived from the earlier tempera, or modified tempera, techniques. The older tempera panels, when finished, were, as we have seen, covered with a coating of oil varnish generally of a warm golden hue, and in some parts they were, as Cennino tells us, glazed with trans-See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

The technique dominated on the whole the French school of the 18th century, and has had a good deal of influence on the painting of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Among the processes employed was the reinforcement of an outline drawing with the pen by means of a slight wash of the same colour, generally a brown. In these so-called pen-andwash drawings artists like Rembrandt were fond of recording their impressions of nature, and the water-colour picture was evolved through the gradual development in importance of the wash as distinct from the line, and by the gradual addition to it of colour. It is true that we find some of the old masters occasionally executing fully-tinted water-colour drawings quite in a modern spirit. There are landscape studies in body-colour of this kind by Durer and by Rubens. These are, however, of the nature of accidents, and the real development of the technique did not begin till the 18th century, when it was worked out, for the most part in England, by artists of whom the most important were Paul See also:

• SANDBY, PAUL (1725-1809)

To Girtin, who died young and whose genius, like that of Masaccio, developed early, is due the distinction of creating water-colour painting as an art dealing with the tones and colours of nature as they had been dealt with in the older media. W. H. Pyne, a contemporary water-colour artist who also wrote on the art, says of Girtin that he " prepared his drawings on the same principle which had hitherto been confined to painting in oil, namely, laying in the object upon his paper with the local colour, and shading the same with the individual tint of its own shadow. Previous to the practice of Turner and Girtin, drawings were shaded first entirely through, whatever their component parts—houses, See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

B.