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THE LYRIC AND DRAMATIC OR " ROMANTIC " See also:PERIOD [In this See also:list the only qualifications given are those of which the complex conditions of See also:modern See also:art make See also:definition easy as well as desirable; and, as throughout this table, the See also:definitions must not be taken as exclusive. The choice of names is, however, guided by the different developments represented: thus accounting for glaring omissions and See also:artistic disproportions.] See also:Weber, 1786–1826. See also:Master of romantic See also:opera. See also:Schubert, 1797–1828. The classic of See also:song. Mendelssohn, 18o9–1847. See also:Chopin, 1809–1849. Composer of See also:pianoforte lyrics. See also:Berlioz, 1803–1869. Master of impressionist orchestration. See also:Schumann, 1810–1856. See also:Wagner, 1813–1883. Achieves See also:absolute See also:union of See also:music with See also:drama. See also:Liszt, 1811–1886. Pianoforte virtuoso and See also:pioneer of the symphonic poem. See also:Bruckner, 1824–1896. The symphonist of the Wagnerian party. See also:Brahms, 1833–1897. Classical symphonic and lyric composer. See also:Joachim, 1831–1907. Violinist, composer and teacher. Brahms's See also:chief See also:fellow-worker in continuing the classical tradition. See also:Tschaikovsky, 1840—1893. Dvoiiak, 1841–1904. See also:Richard See also:Strauss, 1864– Development of the symphonic poem. (D. F. T.) II.—See also:RECENT MUSIC Under See also:separate See also:biographical headings, the See also:work of the chief modern composers in different countries is dealt with ; and here it will be sufficient to indicate the See also:general current of the art, and to mention some of the more prominent among recent composers. See also:Germany.—On the See also:death of Brahms, the See also:great See also:German composers seemed, at the See also:close of the 19th See also:century, to have See also:left no successor. Such merely epigonal figures as A. Bungert (b. 1846) and Cyrill Kistler (1848–1907) could not be regarded as important; and E. See also:Humperdinck's (b. 1854) striking success with Hansel and Gretel (1893) was a solitary See also:triumph in a limited genre. The outstanding figure, at the opening of the loth century, was Richard Strauss (q.v.); but it was not so much now in See also:composition, as in the high excellence of executive art, that Germany still kept up her See also:hegemony in See also:European music, by her See also:schools, her great conductors and instrumentalists, and her devotion as a nation to the See also:production of musical See also:works. See also:France.—From the earliest days of their music, the See also:French have had the enviable See also:power of assimilating the great innovations which were originated in other countries, without losing their See also:habit of warmly appreciating that which their own countrymen produce. That which happened with the Netherlandish composers of the 16th century, and with Lulli in the 17th, was repeated, more or less exactly, with See also:Rossini in the See also:early See also:part of the 19th century and with Wagner at its close. During the last See also:quarter of the 19th century all that is represented by the once-adored name of See also:Gounod was discarded in favour of a See also:style as different as possible from his. The See also:change was mainly due to the Belgian musician, Cesar Auguste See also:Franck (1822–X890), who established a See also:kind of informal school of symphonic and orchestral composition, as opposed to the conventional methods pursued at the See also:Paris See also:Conservatoire. See also:Massenet was left as almost the only representative of the older school, and from Edouard See also:Lalo (1823–1892) to G. See also:Charpentier (b. 1860), all the younger composers of France adopted the newer style. With these may be mentioned See also:Alfred See also:Bruneau (b. 1857), and See also:Gabriel See also:Faure (b. 1845). Camille See also:Saint-Seens (b. 1835), however, remained the chief representative of the See also:sound school of composition, if only by See also:reason of his greater command of resources of every kind and his success in all forms of music. Among the newer school of composers the most See also:original unquestionably was See also:Debussy (q.v.), and among others may be mentioned Ernest See also:Reyer (b. 1823), the author of some ambitious and See also:sterling operas; F. L. V. de See also:Joncieres (b. 1839), an enthusiastic follower of Wagner, and a composer of merit; Emanuel See also:Chabrier 1841–1894), a See also:man of extraordinary See also:gift, who wrote one of the finest operas comiques of modern times, Le Roi malgre lui (1887); See also: See also:Italy.—In Italy during the last quarter of the 19th century many important changes took See also:place. The later development in the style of See also:Verdi (q.v.) was only completed in Otello (1887) and Falstaff (1893), while his last composition, the four beautiful sacred vocal works, show how very far he had advanced in reverence, solidity of style and impressiveness, from the See also:time when he wrote his earlier operas. And Arrigo See also:Boito's Mefistofele had an immense See also:influence on modern See also:Italian music. Among the writers of " absolute " music the most illustrious are G. See also:Sgambati (b. 1843) and G. Martucci (b. 1856), the latter's See also:symphony in D See also:minor being a See also:fine work. Meanwhile a younger operatic school was growing up, of which the first production was the See also:Flora mirabilis of Spiro See also:Samara (b. 1861). given in 1886. Its See also:culmination was in the Cavalleria rusticana (189o) of Pietro See also:Mascagni (b. 1863), the Pagliacci (1892) of R. See also:Leoncavallo (b. 1858), and the operas of Giacomo See also:Puccini (b. 1858), notably Le Villi (1884), Manon Lescaut (1893), La Belie-me (1896), Tosca (1900), and Madama Butterfly (1904). The oratorios of See also:Don Lorenzo Perosi (b. 1872) had an interesting influence on the See also: Cui (b. 1835), M. P. See also:Moussorgsky (1839–1881), and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908), all of whom, as usual with Russian composers, were, strictly speaking, amateurs in music, having some other profession in the See also:absence of any possible opportunity for making See also:money out of music in Russia. The most remarkable man among their contemporaries was undoubtedly Tschaikovsky (q.v.). A. Liadov (b. 1855) excels as a writer for the pianoforte, and A. Glazounov (b. 1865) has composed a number of fine orchestral works. See also:United States.—Of the older See also:American composers, only See also: See also:Edward See also: See also: The beauty and the enormous . quantity of traditional Irish music, the See also:enthusiasm created in See also:Scotland by trumpery songs written in what was supposed to See also:bean See also:imitation of the Scottish style, the existence of the Welsh Eisteddfodau, were admitted facts; but England was supposed to have had no See also:share in these gifts of nature or art, and the See also:vogue of See also:foreign music, from Italian opera to classical symphonies, was held' as See also:evidence of her poverty, instead of being partly the reason of the national sterility. In the successive periods during which the music of See also:Handel and Mendelssohn respectively had been held as all-sufficient for right-thinking musicians, success cquld only be attained, if at all, by those English musicians who deliberately set themselves to copy the style of these great masters; the few men who had the determination to resist the popular See also:movement were` either confined, like the Wesleys, to one See also:branch of music in which some originality of thought was still allowed, that of the Church, or, like Henry See also:Hugo See also:Pierson in the days of the Mendelssohn See also:worship, were driven to seek abroad the recognition they could not obtain at See also:home. For a time it seemed as if the great vogue of Gounod would exalt him into a third artistic See also:despot; but no native composer had even the See also:energy to imitate his See also:Faust; and, by the date of The Redemption (1882) and Mors et vita (1885), a See also:renaissance of English music had already begun.
For a See also:generation up to the 'eighties the affairs of foreign opera in England were rather depressing; the See also:rival houses presided over by the impresarios See also:Frederick Gye (1810–1878) and See also:Colonel J. H. Mapleson (1828–1901) had been going from See also:bad to worse; the traditions of what were called " the palmy days " had been for-gotten, and with the retirement of Christine See also:Nilsson in 1881, and the death of Therese J. A. See also:Tietjens in 1877, the See also:race of the great queens of song seemed to have come to an end. It is true that Mme See also:Patti was in the plenitude of her fame and See also:powers, but the number of her impersonations, perfect as they were, was so small that she alone could not support the See also:weight of an opera See also:season, and her terms made it impossible for any manager to make both ends meet unless the See also:rest of the See also:company were chosen on the principle enunciated by the See also:husband of Mme See also:Catalani, " Ma femme et quatre ou cinq poupees." Mme See also:Albani (b. 1851) had made her name famous, but the most important part of her artistic career was yet to come. She had already brought Tannhduser and See also:Lohengrin into notice, but in Italian versions, as was then usual; and the great vogue of Wagner's operas did not begin until the See also:series of Wagner concerts given at the Royal See also:Albert See also: 1843) in 1882 and 1884, and the production of the trilogy at Her See also:Majesty's in 1882, under Angelo See also:Neumann's rnanagership, first taught stay-at-home Englishmen what Wagner really was, and an Italian opera as such (i.e. with Italian as the exclusive See also:language employed and the old " See also:star " See also:system in full See also:swing) ceased to exist as a See also:regular institution a few years after that. The revival of public See also:interest in the opera only took place after Mr (afterwards See also:Sir) See also:Augustus See also:Harris (1852–1896) had started his series of operas at Drury Lane in 1887. In the following season Harris took Covent See also:Garden, and since that time the opera has been restored to greater public favour than it ever enjoyed, at all events since the days of jenny See also:Lind. The See also:clever manager saw that the public was tired of operas arranged to suit the views of the prima donna and no one else, and he See also:cast the works he produced, among which were Un Ballo in maschera and See also:Les See also:Huguenots, with due attention to every part. The See also:brothers See also:Jean and Edouard de See also:Reszke, both of whom had appeared in See also:London before—the former as a baritone and the latter during the seasons 188b–1884—were even 'stronger attractions to the musical public of the time than the various leading sopranos, among whom were Mme Albani, See also:Miss M. Macintyre, Mme See also:Melba, Frau See also:Sucher and Mme Nordica, during the earlier seasons, and Mme Eames, Mlle Ravogli, MM. See also:Lassalle and P. H. Plangon, and many other Parisian favourites later. As time went on, the excellent See also:custom obtained of giving each work in the language in which it was written, and among the distinguished German artists who were added to the company were Frau M. Ternina, Frau E. Schumann-Heink, Frau Lilli See also:Lehmann and many more. Since Harris's death in 1896 the traditions started by him were on the whole well maintained, and as a sign of the difference between the See also:present and the former position of English composers, it may be mentioned that two operas by F. H. See also:Cowen, Signa and Harold, and two by See also:Stanford, The Veiled See also:Prophet and Much See also:Ado about Nothing, were produced. To Signor Lago, a manager of more enterprise than See also:good See also:fortune, belongs the See also:credit of reviving See also:Gluck's Orfeo (with the masterly impersonation of the See also:principal See also:character by Mlle Giulia Ravogli), and of bringing out Cavalleria rusticana, Tschaikovsky's Eugen Onegin and other works.
If it be just to name one institution and one man as the creator of such an See also:atmosphere as allowed the See also:genius of English composers to flourish, then that See also:honour must be paid to the Crystal See also:Palace and See also:August Manns, the conductor of its Saturday concerts. At first engaged as sub-conductor, under a certain Schallehn, at the See also:building which was the lasting result of the Great See also:Exhibition o` 1851, he became director of the music in 1855; so for the better part of See also:half a century his influence was exerted on behalf of the best music of all schools, and especially in tavour of anything of
English growth. Through evil See also:report and good report he supported his convictions, and for many years he introduced one English composer after another to a fame which they would have found it hard to gain without his help and that of Sir George See also: From 1879 onwards the visits of Hans Richter, the conductor, were a feature of the musical season, and the importance of his work, not only in spreading a love of Wagner's music, but in regard to every other branch of the best orchestral music, cannot be exaggerated. Like the popular concerts, the Richter concerts somewhat See also:fell away in later years from their original purpose, and their managers were led by the popularity of certain pieces to give too little variety. The importance of Richter's work was in bringing forward the finest English music in the years when the masters of the renaissance were See also:young and untried. Here were to be heard the orchestral works of Sir See also:Hubert See also:Parry, Sir Charles See also:Villiers Stanford, Sir A. See also: The work of the musical renaissance has been more beneficially fostered by these two masters than by any other individuals, through the See also:medium of the Royal See also:College of Music. In 1876 the National Training School of Music was opened with Sullivan as principal; he was succeeded by Sir John Stainer in 1881, and the circumstance that such artists as Mr Eugen d'Albert and Mr See also:Frederic Cliffe received there the foundation of their musical education is the only important fact connected with the institution, which in 1882 was succeeded by the Royal College of Music, under the directorship of Sir George Grove, and with Parry and Stanford as professors of composition. In 1894 Parry succeeded to the directorship, and before and after this date work of the best educational kind was done in all branches of the art, but most of all in the important branch of composition. Mackenzie's place among the masters of the renaissance is assured by his romantic compositions for orchestra—such as La Belle See also:dame sans merci and the two " Scottish Rhapsodies "; some of his choral
works, such as the oratorios, show some tendency to fall back into the conventionalities from which the renaissance movement was an effort to See also:escape; but in The Cottar's Saturday See also:Night; The See also:Story of Sayid ; Veni, Creator Spiritus, and many other things, not excepting the opera Colomba or the witty " Britannia " See also:overture, he shows no lack of spontaneity or power. As principal of the Royal See also:Academy of Music (he succeeded See also:Macfarren in 1888) he revived the former glories of the school, and the excellent See also:plan by which it and the Royal College unite their forces in the See also:examinations of the Associated See also:Board is largely due to his initiative. The opera just mentioned was the first of the modern series of English operas brought out from 1883 onwards by the Carl See also:Rosa company during its See also:tenure of Drury Lane See also:Theatre: at the time it seemed as though English opera had a See also:chance of getting permanently established, but the enterprise, being a purely private and individual one, failed to have a lasting effect upon the art of the country, and after the production of two operas by Mackenzie, two by Arthur See also:Goring See also: The charming and thoroughly characteristic Shamus O'Brien of Stanford was successfully produced in 1896 at the Opera Comique theatre. This work brought into public prominence the conductor Mr Henry J. See also:Wood (b. 1870), who exercised a powerful influence on the art of the country by means of his orchestra, which was constantly to be heard at the See also:Queen's Hall, and which attained, by continual performance together, a degree of perfection before unknown in England. It achieved an important work in bringing music within the reach of all classes at the See also:Promenade Concerts given through each summer, as well as by means of the Symphony Concerts at other seasons. The movement thus started by Mr Wood increased and spread remarkably in later years. His training of the Queen's Hall Orchestra was characterized by a thoroughness and severity previously unknown in English orchestras. This was partly made possible by the admirable business organization which fostered the movement in its earlier years; so many concerts were guaranteed that it was possible to give the players engagements which included a large amount of rehearsing. The result was soon apparent, not only in the raising of the standard of orchestral playing, but also in the higher and more intelligent standard of See also:criticism to which performances were subjected both by experts and by the general public. The public taste in London for symphonic music grew so rapidly as to encourage the See also:establishment of other bodies of players, until in 1910 there were five first-class professional orchestras giving concerts regularly in London—the Philharmonic Society, the Queen's Hall Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra (described by Dr Hans Richter as " the finest orchestra in the See also:world "), the New Symphony Orchestra under Mr See also:Landon Ronald (b. 1873), a composer and conductor of striking ability, and Mr Thomas Beecham 's Orchestra. Mr Beecham, who had come rapidly to the front as a musical enthusiast and conductor, paid See also:special attention to the work of See also:British composers. See also:Manchester, See also:Birmingham, See also:Liverpool and See also:Edinburgh, had their own orchestras; and It might be said that the whole of the United Kingdom was now permeated with a taste for and a knowledge of orchestral music. The effect of this development has influenced the whole of the musical See also:life of England. The symphony and the symphonic poem have taken the place so long held by the oratorio in popular taste; and English composers of any merit or ability find It possible to get a See also:hearing for orchestral work which at the end of the :9th century would have had to remain unperformed and unheard. The result has been the rapid development of a school of English orchestral composers--a school of considerable achievement and still greater promise. The new school of English writers contains many names of skilled composers. Sir Edward See also:Elgar established his reputation by his vigorous See also:Caractacus and the grandiose imaginings of his See also:Dream of Gerontius, as by orchestral and chamber compositions of decided merit and individuality, and by being the composer of a symphony which attained greater and wider fame than any similar work since the symphonies of Tschaikovsky. Mr Edward German (b. 1862) won great success as a writer of incidental music for plays, and in various lighter forms of music, for which his great skill in orchestration and his knowledge of effect stand him in good See also:stead. The quality of Mr Frederic Cliff e's orchestral works is extremely high. Dr Arthur Somervell (b. 1863), who succeeded Stainer as musical adviser to the Board of Education, first came into prominence as a composer of a number of charming songs, notably a fine song-See also:cycle from Tennyson's Maud, but his See also:Mass and various orchestral works and cantatas and pianoforte pieces show his conspicuous ability in other forms. Various compositions written by Mr Hamish See also:MacCunn (b. 1868), while still a student at the Royal College of Music, were received with See also:acclamation; but his later work was not of equal value, though his operas Jeanie Deans and Diarmid were successful. Mr See also:Granville Bantock (b. 1868), an ardent supporter of the most advanced music, has written many fine things for orchestra, and Mr William See also:Wallace (b. 1861), in various orchestral pieces played at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere, and in such things as his Freebooter " songs, has shown strong individuality and See also:imagination. Mr Arthur See also:Hinton (b. 1869) has produced things of fanciful beauty and See also:quaint originality. Miss Ethel M. See also:Smyth, whose Mass was given at the Royal Albert Hall in most favourable conditions, had her opera Fantasio produced at See also:Weimar and Carlsruhe, and Der Wald at Covent Garden. Miss Maud Valerie See also: Mr See also:Cyril See also:Scott is a composer who aims high, though with a somewhat strained originality. Dr H. See also:Watford See also:Davies (b. 1869) and W. Y. See also:Hurlstone (1876–1906) excel in the serious kind of chamber-music and use the classic forms with notable skill; and Mr R. See also:Vaughan See also:Williams, in his songs and other works, has shown perhaps the most conspicuous See also:talent among all of the younger school. English executive musicians have never suffered from foreign competition in the same degree as English composers, and the success of such singers as Miss See also:Anna Williams, Miss Macintyre, Miss Marie Brema, Miss See also:Clara See also:Butt, Miss See also:Agnes Nicholls, Messrs See also:Santley, Edward See also:Lloyd, See also:Ben Davies, See also:Plunket See also:Greene and Ffrangcon Davies; or of such pianists as Miss Fanny Davies and Mr Leonard Borwick, is but a continuance of the tradition of British excellence. The scientific study of the music of the past has more and more decidedly taken its place as a branch of musical education; the learned writings of W. S. Rockstro (1823–1895), many of them made public first in the See also:Encyclopaedia Britannica and Grove's See also:Dictionary of Music, made the subject clear to many who had been groping in the dark before; and the actual performance of old music has been undertaken not only by the Bach Choir, but by the See also:Magpie See also:Madrigal Society under Mr Lionel See also:Benson's able direction. In vocal and instrumental music alike the musical See also:side of the Inter-national Exhibition of 1885 did excellent work in its See also:historical concerts; and in that branch of See also:archaeology which is concerned with the structure and restoration of old musical See also:instruments, important work has been done by Mr A. J. Hipkins (1826–1903; so long connected with the See also:firm of Broadwood), the Rev. F. W. Galpin. See also:Arnold Dolmetsch and others. The formation of the Folk-Song Society in 1899 See also:drew attention to the importance and extent of English traditional music, and did much to popularize it with singers of the present day. See also:Aesthetics, Theory, £s' c.—H. Ehrlich, Die Musik-Aesthetik in ihrer Entwickelung von See also:Kant bis auf die Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1882); E. Hanslick, The Beautiful in Music (London, 1891) ; R. Wallaschek, Aesthetik der Tonkunst (See also:Stuttgart, 1886) ; R. Pohl, Die Hohenziige der musikalischen Enlwickelung (Leipzig, 1888) ; A. Schnez, Die Geheimnisse der Tonkunst (Stuttgart, 1891); J. A. Zahm, Sound and Music (Chicago, 1892) ; C. Bellaique, Psychologie musicale( Paris, 189s); W. See also:Pole, See also:Philosophy of Music (vol. xi. of the English and Foreign Philosophical Library, 1895) ; M. Seybel, Schopenhauers Metaphysik der Musik (Leipzig, 1895) ; L. Lacombe, Philosophie et musique (Paris, 1896) ; Sir C. H. H. Parry, The See also:Evolution of the Art of Music (London, 1897); H. See also:Riemann, Praludien and Studien (See also:Frankfort, 1896); Geschichte der Musiktheorie See also:im IX.–XIX. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1898); Systematische Modulationslehre (See also:Hamburg, 1887) ; J. C. See also:Lobe, Lehrbuch der musikalischen Komposition (Leipzig, 1884) ; A. B. See also:Marx, Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition (Leipzig, 1887, 1890) ; M. L. C. See also:Cherubini, Theorie See also:des Kontrapunktes and der Fuge (See also:Cologne, 1896) ; Sir J. F. See also:Bridge and F. J. See also:Sawyer, A Course of See also:Harmony (London, 1899) ; E. See also:Prout, See also:Counter-point (London, 1890); See also:Double See also:Counterpoint and See also:Canon (London, 1893) ; Musical Form (London, 1893) ; Applied Forms (London, 1895); B. Widmann, Die strengen Formen der Musik (Leipzig, 1882) ; S. Jadassohn, Die Formen in den Werken der Tonkunst (Leipzig, 1885) ; M. Steinitzer, Psychologische Wirkungen der musikalischen Formen (See also:Munich, 1885); J. Combarieu, Theorie du rhythme dans la composition moderne d'apres la See also:doctrine See also:antique (Paris, 1897) ; P. Goetschius, Homophonic Forms of Musical Composition (New York, 1898) ; William Wallace, The See also:Threshold of Music (1907).
English Music.—W. Nagel, Geschichte der Musik in England (See also:Strassburg, 1894) ; H. Davey, See also:History of English Music (London, 1895) ; F. Crewest, The Story of British Music (London, 1896); S. Vautyn, L'Evolution de la musique en Angleterre (See also:Brussels, 1900) ; Ernest See also: B. See also:Mathews, A See also:Hundred Years of Music in America (Chicago, 1889) ; L. C. Elson, The National Music of America and its See also:Sources (Boston, 1900) ; T. See also:Baker, Ober die Musik der See also:nord-amerikanischen Wilden (Leipzig, 1882). France.—H. Laroix, La Musique franQaise (Paris, 1891); N. M. Schletterer, Studien zur Geschichte der franzosischen Musik (See also:Berlin, 1884–1885) ; T. Galino, La Musique francaise au moyen Ilge (Leipzig, 1890) ; A. Cognard, De la Musique en France depuis See also:Rameau (Paris, 1891) ; G. Servieres, La Musique francaise moderne (Paris, 1897). Germany.—W. Baeuinker, Geschichte der Tonkunst in Deutschland bis zur See also:Reformation (See also:Freiburg, 1881); O. Ebben, Der volkslhumliche deutsche Mannergesang (See also:Tubingen, 1887) ; L. Meinardus, Die deutsche Tonkunst; A. Soubies, Histoire de la musique See also:allemande (Paris, 1896).
Italy.—O. Chilesotti, I nostri maestri del passato (See also:Milan, 1882) ; V. See also: Scandinavia.—A. Gronvoed, Norske Musikere (See also:Christiania, 1883); C. Valentin, Studien fiber die schwedischen Volksmelodien (Leipzig, 1885). See also:Spain. . F. Riano, Notes on Early See also:Spanish Music (London, 1887) ; J. ors y See also:Daniel, Noticia musical del " Lied " 6 Casio catalana (See also:Barcelona, 1892) ; A. Soubies, Hist. de la See also:mus. en Espagne (1899). See also:Switzerland.—A. Niggli, La Musique sans la Suisse allemande (1900) ; F. Held, La Musique dans la Suisse romande (1900) ; A. Soubies, Hist. de la mus. dans la Suisse (1899). Church Music.—F. L. See also:Humphreys, The Evolution of Church Music (New York, 1898) ; E. L. See also:Taunton, History of Church Music (London, 1887) ; A. Morsch, Der italienische Kirchengesang bis Palestrina (Berlin, 1887) ; G. Masutto, Della Musica sacra in Italia, (Venice, 1889) ; G. See also:Felix, Palestrina et la musique sacrie (See also:Bruges, 1895) ; R. v. See also:Liliencron, Liturgisch-musikalische Geschichte der evangelischen Gottesdienste (See also:Schleswig, 1893). Instruments (see also the separate articles on each).—L. Arrigoni, Organografia ossia descrizione degli instrumenti musicali autichi (Milan, 1881) ; F. Boudoin, La Musique historique (Paris, 1886); A. Jacquot, Etude de l'art instrumental. Dictionnaire des instruments de musique (Paris, 1886) ; H. Boddington, See also:Catalogue of Musical Instruments illustrative of the History of the Pianoforte (Manchester 1888) ; M. E. See also: See also:Verney, Siamese Musical Instruments (London, 1888) ; C. R. Day, Music and Musical Instruments of See also:Southern See also:India (London, I891); D. G. See also:Brinton, Native American Stringed Musical Instruments (1897); J. Ruehlmann, Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente (See also:Brunswick, 1882);. F. di Caffarelli, Gli Strumenti ad arco e la musica da See also:camera (Milan, 1894) ; Kathleen Schlesinger, Instruments of the Orchestra (1910). Conducting.—W. R. Wagner, On Conducting (London, 1887) ; M. Kufferath, L'Art de diriger l'orchestre (Paris, 1891); F. Weingartner, Ober das Dirigiren (Berlin, 1896). See also:Biography.—F. Hueffer, The Great Musicians (London, 1881–1884) ; F. See also:Clement, Les Grands musiciens (Paris, 1882) ; C. E. See also:Bourne, The Great Composers (London, 1887) ; G. T. Ferris, Great Musical Composers; Sir C. H. H. Parry, Studies of Great Composers (London, 1887) ; A. A. Ernouf, Compositeurs cilebres (Paris, 1888) ; F. Bennassi-Desplantes, Les Musiciens cilebres (See also:Limoges, 1889); A. Haunedruche, Les Musiciens et compositeurs frantais (Paris, 1890) ; N. H. See also:Dole, A See also:Score of Famous Composers (New York, 1891); L. T. See also:Morris, Famous Musical Composers (London, 1891); H. de Br6mont, The World of Music (London, 1892) ; J. K. Paine, Famous Composers and their Works (Boston, 1892–1893) ; E. Polko, Meister der Tonkunsi (See also:Wiesbaden, 1897); R. F. See also:Sharp, Makers of Music (London, 1898); L. Nohl, Mosaik Denksteine aus dem Leben beru.hmter Tonkf nstler (Leipzig, 1899) ; T. Baker, A Biographical Dictionary of Musicians (New York, 1900); M. Charles, Zeitgenossische Tondichter (Leipzig, 1888) ; A. See also:Jullien, Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1892). MUSICAL-See also:BOX, an See also:instrument for producing by See also:mechanical means tunes or pieces of music. The modern musical-box is an elaboration of the elegant See also:toy musical See also:snuff-box in vogue during the 18th century. The notes or musical sounds are produced by the vibration of See also:steel See also:teeth or springs cut in a See also:comb or See also:flat See also:plate of steel, reinforced by the harmonics generated in the solid steel back of the comb. The teeth are graduated in length from end to end of the comb or plate, the longer teeth giving the deeper notes; and the individual teeth are accurately attuned, where necessary, by filing or loading with See also:lead. Each See also:tone and semitone in the See also:scale is represented by three or four separate teeth in the comb, to permit of successive repetitions of the same note when required by the music. The teeth are acted upon and musical vibrations produced by the revolution of a See also:brass See also:cylinder studded with projecting pins, which, as they move See also:round, raise and See also:release the proper teeth at due intervals according to the nature of the music. A single revolution of the cylinder completes the performance of each of the several pieces of music for which the apparatus is set, but upon the same cylinder there may be inserted pins for performing as many as See also:thirty-six separate airs. This is accomplished by making both the points of the teeth and the projecting pins which raise them very fine, so that a very small change in the position of the cylinder is sufficient to bring an entirely distinct set of pins in contact with the teeth. Iq the more elaborate musical-boxes the cylinders are removable, and may be replaced by others containing distinct sets of music. In these also there are combinations of See also:bell, See also:drum, cymbal and triangle effects, &c. The revolving See also:motion of the cylinder is effected by a See also:spring and See also:clock-work which on some modern instruments will work continuously for an See also:hour and a half without winding, and the See also:rate of revolution is regulated by a See also:fly regulator. The headquarters of the musical-box See also:trade is See also:Geneva, where the manufacture gives employment to thousands of persons. The musical-box is a type of numerous instruments for producing musical effects by mechanical means, in all of which a revolving cylinder or See also:barrel studded with pins is the governing feature. The position of the pins on the barrel is determined by two considerations: those of See also:pitch and of time or See also:rhythm. The degrees of pitch or semitones of the scales are in the direction of the length of the cylinder, while those of time, or the beats in the bars, are in the path of the revolution of the cylinder. The See also:action of the pins is practically the same for all barrel instruments; each See also:pin serves to raise some part of the mechanism for one note at the exact moment and for the exact duration of time required by the music to be played, after which, passing along with the revolution of the cylinder, it ceases to See also:act. The principle of the barrel operating by See also:friction, by percussion or by See also:wind on reeds, pipes or strings governs carillons or musical bells, barrel See also:organs, mechanical flutes, See also:celestial voices, harmoniphones, See also:violin-pianos and the orchestrions and polyphons in which a See also:combination of all orchestral effects is attemoted. In the case of wind instruments, such as flutes, trumpets, oboes, clarinets, imitated in the more complex orchestrions, the pins raise levers which open the valves admitting See also:air, compressed by mechanical See also:bellows, to various kinds of flue-pipes, and to others fitted with beating and free reeds. The sticks used for striking bells, drums, See also:cymbals and triangles are set in motion in a similar manner. A fine set of full-See also:page drawings, published at Frankfort in 1615,1 makes the whole working of the pinned barrel quite clear, and establishes the exact relation of the pins to the music produced by the barrel so unmistakably that some bars of the piece of music set on the cylinder can be made out. The prototype of the 19th-century musical-box is to be found in the See also:Netherlands where during the 15th century the See also:dukes of See also:Burgundy encouraged the invention of ingenious mechanical musical curiosities such as " organs which played of themselves," musical snuff-boxes, singing birds, curious clocks, &c. A principle of more recent introduction than the studded cylinder consists of sheets of perforated See also:paper or card, somewhat similar to the See also:Jacquard apparatus for See also:weaving. The perforations correspond in position and length to the pitch and duration of the note they represent,and as the See also:web or long See also:sheet of paper passes over the instrument the perforated holes are brought in proper position and sequence under the influence of the suction or pressure of air from a bellows, and thereby the notes are either directly acted on, as in the case of See also:reed instruments, or the opening and closing of valves set in motion levers or liberate springs which govern special notes. The United States are the original home of the instruments controlled by perforated paper known as orguinettes, organinas, melodeons, &c. All these instruments are being gradually replaced in popular favour by the piano-players and the See also:gramophone. (K. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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