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CHAPANECAN
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CHAPANECAN , Chi.; Chinantecan, Oax.; Chontalan, S. Mex.; Huatusan, Nic.; Huavean, Tehuant.; Lencan, Hon.; MAYAN, Yuc. and Guat. ; NAHUATLAN, Mex.; OTOMITLAN, Cen. Mex. ; See also:Middle Raman, Hond. ; Serian, Tiburon I.; Subtiaban, Nic. ; Amerk.a. TARASCAN, Mich.; Tehuantepecan, See also:Isthmus; Tequistlatecan, Oax.; TOTONACAN, Mex.; Triquian, S. Mex.; Ulvan, Nic. ; Xicaquean, Hond.; ZAPOTECAN, Oax. ; ZOQUEAN, Tehuant. Alikulufan, T. del Fuego; Arauan, R. Purus; ARAWAKIAN, E. See also:Andes; Atacamenyan, S. See also:Peru; ARAUCANIAN, See also:Pampas; AYMARAN, Peru; Barbacoan, See also:Colombia; Betoyan, See also:Bogota; See also:Cam- See also:South chanan, See also:Bolivia; Carahan, S. See also:Brazil; CARIBIAN, around See also:America. Caribbean See also:Sea; Catamarenyan, See also:Chaco; Changuinan, See also:Panama; Charruan, See also:Parana K.; CHIBCHAN, Colombia; Churoyan, See also:Orinoco R.; Coconucan, Colombia., Cunan, Panama; GUAYCURUAN. See also:Paraguay R.; JIVAROAN, See also:Ecuador; KECHUAN, Peru; Laman, N.E. Peru; Lulean, Vermejo R.; Mainan, S. Ecuador; Matacoan, Vermejo R.; Mocoan, Colombia; Mosetenan, E. Bolivia; See also:OMAN; T. del Fuego; Paniquitan, Colombia; Panoan, Ucayali R., Peru; Payaguan, Chaco; Puquinan, Titicaca L. Sainucan, Bolivia; Tacanan, N. Bolivia; TAPUYAN, Brazil; Timotean, See also:Venezuela; TUPIAN, See also:Amazon R.; TZONECAN, See also:Patagonia; YAHGAN, T. del Fuego; Yuncan, Truxillo, Peru; Yurucarian, E. Bolivia; ZAPAROAN, Ecuador. Written See also:language was largely hierographicand heroic. The See also:drama, the cult See also:image, the pictograph, the synecdochic picture, the ideaglyph, were steps in a progress without a break. The See also:warrior painted the See also:story of conflicts on his robe only in See also:part, to help him recount the See also:history of his See also:life; the See also:Eskimo etched the prompters of his See also:legend on See also:ivory; the Tlinkit carved them on his totem See also:post; the See also:women fixed them in pottery, basketry, or blankets. At last, the central advanced tribes made the names of the abbreviated pictures useful in other connexions, and were far on the way to a syllabary. Intertribal communication was through gestures; it may be, survivals of a primordial speech, antedating the differentiated spoken See also:languages. See publications of the See also:Bureau of See also:American See also:Ethnology; by F. W. See also:Hodge (1906); Farrand, Basis of Am. History, See also:chap. xviii.; and Orozco y Berra, Geografia de See also:las lenguas, &c. (See also:Mexico, '1868). To : See also:supply their wants the Americans invented modifications in natural materials, the working of which was their See also:industries. The vast collections in richly endowed See also:European and Techao- American museums are the witnesses and types of these. Bogy There is danger of confounding the products of native industries. The following classes must be carefully discriminated :—(a) pre-Columbian,(b) Columbian, (c) pre-contact, (d) first contact, (e) post-contact, (f) See also:present, and (g) See also:spurious. Pre-Columbian or pre-historic material is further classified into that which had been used by See also:Indians before the See also:discovery, and such as is claimed to be of a See also:prior See also:geological See also:period. Columbian, or 15 thcentury material, still exists in museums of See also:Europe and America, and See also:good descriptions are to be found in the writings of contemporary historians. Pre-contact material is such as continued to exist in any tribe down to the See also:time when they were touched by the presence of the See also:trade of the whites. In some tribes this would bring the student very near to the present time; for example, before Steinen, the Indians in Matto Grosso were in the pre-contact period. Post-contact material is genuine See also:Indian See also:work more or less influenced by acculturation. It is interesting in this connexion to study also first contact in its lists of articles, and the effects produced upon aboriginal minds and methods. For example, a tribe that would jump at See also:iron arrow-heads stoutly declined to modify the shafts. Present material is such as the Indian tribes of the two Americas are making to-See also:day. Spurious material includes all that See also:mass of See also:objects made by whites and sold as of Indian manufacture; some of it follows native See also:models and methods; the See also:rest is fraudulent and pernicious. The question whether similarities in technology argue for contact of tribes, or whether they merely show corresponding states of culture, with modifications produced by environment, divides ethnologists. (See Farrand, chap. xviii.)
The study of See also:mechanics involves materials, tools, processes and products. No iron tools existed in America before the invasion of Aboriginal the whites. See also:Mineral, See also:vegetable and See also:animal substances, mechanic& soft and hard, were wrought into the supply of wants
by means of tools and apparatus of See also: The north-west See also:coast Indians hoisted the logs that formed the plates of their See also:house frames into position with skids and parbuckles of rope. The architectural Mexicans, Central Americans, and especially the Peruvians, had no derricks or other hoisting devices, but rolled See also:great stones into See also:place along prepared ways and up inclined planes of See also:earth, which were afterwards removed. In See also:building the fortress of Sacsahuaman, heights had to be scaled; in Tiahuanaco stones weighing 400 tons were carried seventeen See also:miles; in the edifices of 011antaytambo not only were large stones hauled up an ascent, but were fitted perfectly. The moving of vast objects by these See also:simple processes shows what great See also:numbers. of men could be enlisted in a single effort, and how high a grade of See also:government it was which could hold them together and feed them. In See also:Arizona, Mexico and Peru, reservoirs and aqueducts prove that hydrotechny was understood. (Hodge, Am. Anthrop. vi. 323.) Time-keeping devices were not See also:common. See also:Sun-dials and See also:calendar monuments were known among the more advanced tribes. Fractional portions of time were gauged by shadows, and time of day indicated by the position of the sun with reference to natural features. No See also:standards of weighingor measuring were known, but the parts of the See also:body were the See also:units, and See also:money consisted in rare and durable vegetable and animal substances, which scarcely reached the dignity of a mechanism of See also:exchange. If the See also:interpretation of the See also:Maya calculiform glyphs be trustworthy, these See also:people had carried their See also:numeral See also:system into the hundreds of thousands and devised symbols for recording such high numbers. (See Bulletin z8, See also:Bur. Am. Et/inol.) The Americans were, in most places, flesh-eaters. The See also:air, the See also:waters and the See also:land were their See also:base of supplies, and See also:cannibalism, it is admitted, was widespread. With this animal See also:diet . See also:flood. everywhere vegetable substances were mixed, even in the boreal regions. Where the temperature allowed, vegetable diet increased, and fruits, seeds and roots were laid. under See also:tribute. Storage was common, and also the drying of ripened fruits. The most favoured areas were those where See also:corn and other See also:plants could be artificially produced, and there barbaric cultures were elaborated. This farming was of the rudest See also:kind. Plots of ground were burned over, trees were girdled, and seeds were planted by means of sharpened sticks. The first See also:year the See also:crop would be See also:free from weeds, the second year only those See also:grew whose seeds were wafted or carried by birds, the third year the crop required hoeing, which was done with sticks, and then the space was abandoned for new ground. See also:Irrigation and See also:terrace culture were practised at several points on the Pacific slope from Arizona to Peru. The steps along which plant and animal domestication passed up-wards in artificiality are graphically illustrated in the aboriginal See also:food quest. Except in the boreal areas thebreech-clout was nearly universa` with men, and the cincture or See also:short See also:petticoat with women. Evee in Mexican and Mayan sculptures the gods are arrayed in gorgeous See also:breech-clouts. The See also:foot-See also:gear in .the tropics arna snadd edorn, was the See also:sandal, and, passing northward, the See also:moccasin, See also:meat. becoming the See also:long See also:boot in the See also:Arctic. See also:Trousers and the. See also:blouse were known only among the Eskimo, and it is difficult to say how much these have been modified by contact. Leggings and skin See also:robes took their place southward, giving way at last to the. nearly nude. See also:Head coverings also were gradually tabooed south of the 49th parallel. See also:Tattooing and See also:painting the body were well-nigh universal. Labrets, i.e. pieces of See also:bone, stone, See also:shell, &c., were worn as ornaments in the See also:lip (Latin, See also:labrum) or cheek by Eskimo, Tlinkit, Nahuatlan and tribes on the Brazilian coast. For ceremonial purposes all American tribes were See also:expert in the masquerade and dramatic See also:apparel. A study of these in the historic tribes makes See also:plain the motives in gorgeous Mexican sculptures. The tribal system of See also:family organisation, universal in America, dominated the dwelling. The Eskimo underground houses of sod
and See also:snow, the Dene (Tinneh) and See also:Sioux bunch of bark Habits- or skin wigwams, the See also:Pawnee earth See also:lodge the See also:Iroquois
See also:don.
long house, the Tlinkit great See also:plank house; the See also:Pueblo with its See also:honeycomb of See also:chambers, the small See also:groups of thatched houses in tropical America and the Patagonian toldos of skin are examples. The Indian habitation was made up of this composite See also:abode, with whatever out-structures and See also:garden plots were needed. A See also:group of abodes, however joined together, constituted the See also:village or See also:home of the tribe, and there was added to these a See also:town See also: Tables, knives, forks and other prandial apparatus were as lacking as they were in the palaces of See also:kings a few centuries before. (See also:Morgan, Houses and House Life; Farrand, p. 286.) Stone-working was universal in America. The tribes quarried by means of crowbars and picks of wood and bone. They split stone- the silicious rocks with stonehammers,and then chipped working. them into shape with bone tools. Soapstone for pot- tery was partly tut into the desired shape in the native ledge, broken or prised loose, and afterwards scraped into See also:form. Paint was excavated with the ubiquitous digging-stick, and rubbed See also:fine on stones with water or grease. For polished stone-work the material was pecked by blows, ground with other stones, and smoothed with fine material. Sawing was done by means of sand or with a thin piece of harder stuff. See also:Boring was effected with-the sand-See also:drill; the hardest rocks may have been pierced with specially hard sand. At any See also:rate stones were sawed, shaped, polished, carved and perforated, not only by the Mexicans, but among other tribes. For building purposes stones were got out, dressed, carved and sculptured with stone hammers and chisels made of hard and tenacious See also:rock. Stone-cutters' tools of See also:metal are not known to have existed, and they were not needed. Their See also:quarrying and stone-working were most wasteful. Those localities where chipping was done reveal hundreds of tons of splinters and failures, and these are often counted as ruder implements of an earlier time. The dressed stones for great buildings were pecked out of the ledges, and broken off with levers in pieces much too large for their needs. (McGuire, " The Stone See also:Hammer," Am. Anthrop. iv., 1891; See also:Holmes, Archaeological Studies; see Hodge's See also:List, Bur. Am. Ethnol., 1906, and Handbook.) Metals were treated as malleable stones by the American See also:aborigines. No See also:evidence of smelting ores with fluxes is offered, but casting from' metal melted in open fires is assumed. See also:Gold, See also:silver, See also:copper, pure or mixed with See also:tin or silver, are to be found here and there in both continents, and nuggets were objects of See also:worship. Tools and appliances for working metals were of the rudest kind, and if moulds for casting were employed these were broken up; at least no museum contains samples of them, and the processes are not described. In the Arctic and Pacific coast provinces, about See also:Lake See also:Superior, in See also:Virginia and North Carolina, as well as in ruder parts of Mexico and South America, metals were See also:cold-hammered into plates, weapons, rods and See also:wire, ground and polished; fashioned into carved blocks of hard, tenacious stone by pressure or See also:blow, over-laid, cold-welded and plated. Soldering, brazing and the blow-See also:pipe in the Cordilleran provinces are suspected, but the evidence of their existence must be further examined. A See also:deal of study hasbeen devoted to the cunning Tubal Cains, the surprising productions of whose handiworkhave been recovered in the See also:art provinces of Mexico and the Cordilleras, especially in Chiriqui, between See also:Costa Rica and Colombia. It must be admitted, however, that both the tools and the processes have escaped the archaeologist, as they did "the ablest goldsmiths in See also:Spain, for they never could conceive how they had been made, there being no sign of a hammer or an engraver or any other See also:instrument used by them, the Indians having none such" (See also:Herrera). The See also:potter's See also:wheel" did not exist in the western See also:world, but it was almost invented. Time and muscle, knack and See also:touch, a trained See also:eye and See also:brain and an unlimited See also:array of patterns See also:hanging on See also:fancy's walls, aided by a See also:box of dry sand, Pottery. were competent to give the charming results. No more striking contrast can be found between forlorn conditions and refined art products. Art in See also:clay was far from universal in the two Americas. The Eskimo on See also:Bering Sea had learned to See also:model shallow See also:bowls for lamps. No pottery existed in See also:Athapascan boundaries. See also:Algonquin-Iroquois tribes made creditable See also:ware in See also:Canada and eastern See also:United States. Muskhogean tribes were potters, but Siouan tribes, as a See also:rule, in all the See also:Mississippi drainage were not. In their area, however, dwelt clay-working tribes, and the Mandans had the art. Moreover, the See also:mound-builders in the eastern See also:half of this vast plain, being sedentary, were excellent potters. The efflorescence of aboriginal pottery is to be found in the Pueblo region of south-westernUnited States, in Mexico,Central America,Caribbean Islands, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and restricted areas- of eastern Brazil. (The literature on this subject is extensive. See See also:Cushing, Fewkes, Holmes, Hough, See also:Stevenson.) On the Pacific See also:side of the See also:continent not one of the See also:forty linguistic families made pottery. The only workers in clay west of the Rockies and north of the Pueblo See also:country belonged to the Shoshonean family of the Interior See also:Basin. The study of Indian textiles includes an See also:account of their See also:fibres, tools, processes, products, ornaments and uses. The fibres were either animal or vegetable; animal fibres were See also:hair, Textile fur on the skin, feathers, hide, See also:sinew and intestines; lndustriea. vegetable fibres were stalks of small trees, See also:brush, See also:straw, See also:cotton, bast, bark, leaves and See also:seed vessels in great variety as one passes from the north southward through all the culture provinces. The products of the textile See also:industry in America were bark See also:cloth, wattling for walls, fences and weirs, paper, basketry, See also:matting, See also:loom products, See also:needle or point work,' See also:net-work, See also:lace-work and See also:embroidery. In the manufacture of these the -sub-stances were reduced to the form of slender filaments, shreds, rods, splints, See also:yarn, twine and sennit or See also:braid. All textile work was done by hand; the only devices known were the bark peeler and beater, the shredder, the See also:flint-See also:knife, the spindle, the rope-twister, the See also:bodkin, the warp-See also:beam and the most See also:primitive See also:harness: • The processes involved were gathering the raw material, shredding, splitting, gauging, wrapping, See also:twining, See also:spinning and braiding. Twining and spinning were done with the fingers of both hands, with the See also:palm on the thigh, with the spindle and with the twister. Ornamentation was in form, See also:colour, technical processes and dyes. The uses to which the textiles were put were for clothing, furniture for the house, utensils for a thousand industries, fine arts, social functions and worship. in See also:order to comprehend the more intricate processes of the higher peoples it is necessary to examine the textile industry in all of the culture areas. It is essentially woman's work, though among the See also:Pueblos, strangely enough, men are weavers. The Eskimo woman did not weave, but wasexpert in sewing and embroidering with sinew See also:thread by means of a bodkin. The Dene (Tinneh) peoples used strips of hide for snowshoes and See also:game-bags, sewed their deerskin clothing with sinew thread, and embroidered in split See also:quill. Their basketry, both in Canada and in Arizona, was coiled work. The See also:northern Algonquin and Iroquoian tribes practised similar arts, and in the See also:Atlantic states wove robes of animal and See also:bird skins by cutting the latter into long strips, winding these strips on twine of See also:hemp, and See also:weaving them by the same processes employed in their basketry. Textile work in the Sioux See also:province was chiefly the making of skin garments with sinew Metallurgy. thread, but in the Gulf states the existence of excellent See also:cane and See also:grasses gave opportunity for several varieties of weaving. On the Pacific coast of America the efflorescence of basketry in every form df technic was known. This art reached down to the See also:borders of Mexico. Loom-weaving in its simplest form began with the Chilkats of See also:Alaska, who hung the warp over a long See also:pole, and wrought mythological figures into their gorgeous blankets by a See also:process resembling See also:tapestry work. The forming of bird skins, See also:rabbit skins and feathers into robes, and all basketry technic, existed from See also:Vancouver See also:Island to Central America. In northern Mexico net-work, rude lace-work in twine, are followed farther south, where finer material existed, by figured weaving of most intricate type and See also:pattern; warps were crossed and wrapped, wefts were omitted-and texture changed, so as to produce marvellous effects upon the See also:surface. This composite art reached its See also:climax in Peru, the See also:llama See also:wool affording the finest See also:staple on-the whole hemisphere. Textile work in other parts of South America did not differ from that of the See also:Southern states of the See also:Union. The addition of brilliant ornamentation in shell, teeth, feathers, wings of See also:insects and dyed fibres completed the See also:round of the textile art. A See also:peculiar type of coiled basketry is found at the Strait of See also:Magellan, but the motives are not American. (Consult the See also:works of Boas, See also:Dixon, G. T. See also:Emmons, Holmes, See also:Otis T. See also:Mason, See also:Matthews, See also: P. Niblack, Lucien M. See also:Turner.) Since most American tribes lived upon flesh, the activities of life were associated with the animal world. These activities were not Zootechny. confined to the land, but had to do also with those littoral meadows where invertebrate and vertebrate marine animals fed in unlimited numbers. An account of See also:savage life, therefore, includes the knowledge of the animal life of America and its See also:distribution, regarding the continent, not only as a whole, but in those natural history provinces and migrations which governed and characterized the activities of the peoples. This study would include industries connected with See also:capture, those that worked up into products the results of capture, the social organizations and labours which were involved in pursuit of animals, the language, skill, inventions and knowledge resulting therefrom, and, finally, the religious conception united with the animal world, which has been named zootheism. In the capture of animals would be involved the pedagogic See also:influence of animal life; the engineering embraced in taking them in large numbers; the cunning and See also:strategy necessary to hunters so poorly armed giving rise to disguises and lures of many kinds. Capture begins among-the See also:lower tribes with the hand, without devices, developing knack and skill in seizing, pursuing, climbing, See also:swimming, and See also:maiming without weapons; and proceeds to gathering with devices that take the place of the hand in dipping, digging, hooking and grasping; weapons for striking, whether clubs, missiles or projectiles; edged weapons of capture, which were rare in America; piercing devices for capture, in lances, barbed spears, harpoons and arrows; traps for enclosing, arresting and killing, such as pens, cages, pits, See also:pen-falls, nets, hooks, nooses, clutches, adhesives, deadfalls, impalers, knife traps and poisons; animals consciously and unconsciously aiding in capture; fire in the form of torches, beacons, burning out and smoking out; poisons and asphyxiators; the accessories to See also:hunting, including such changes in food, See also:dress, shelter, travelling, packing, See also:mechanical tools and intellectual apparatus as demanded by these arts. Finally, in this connexion, the first steps in domestication, beginning with the improvement of natural corrals or spawning ground, and hunting with trained See also:dogs and animals. Zootechnic products include food, clothing, ornaments, habitations, weapons, See also:industrial tools, textiles, money, &c. In See also:sociology the dependence of the American tribes upon the animal world becomes most apparent. A great See also:majority of all the family names in America were from animal totems. The See also:division of labour among the sexes was based on zootechny. Labour organizations for hunting, communal See also:hunt and migrations had to do with the animal world. In the See also:duel between the See also:hunter and the beast-mind the intellectual See also:powers of See also:perception, memory, See also:reason and willwere developed; experience and knowledge by experience were enlarged, language and the graphic arts were fostered, the inventive See also:faculty was evoked and developed, and primitive See also:science was fostered in the unfolding of numbers, metrics, clocks, See also:astronomy, history and the See also:philosophy of See also:causation. Beliefs and practices with reference to the heavenly world were inspired by zoic activities; its location, scenery and environment were the homes of beast gods. It was largely a zoopantheon; thus zootheism influenced the organization of tribes and See also:societies in the tribes. The place, furniture, liturgies and apparatus of worship were hereby suggested. Myths, folk-See also:lore, hunting charms, fetishes, superstitions and customs were based on the same See also:idea. (For life zones, see C. H. Merriam, Biol. Survey, U. S. Dept. of See also:Agriculture.)
Excepting for extensive and rapid travel over the snow in the Arctic regions by means of See also:dog sleds, the extremely limited transportation by dog travail (or sledge) in the Sioux province, and the use of the llama as a beast of See also:burden Travel. throughout the Peruvian See also:highlands, land travel was on foot, and land transportation on the backs of men and women. One of the most interesting topics of study is the trails along which the seasonal and See also:annual migrations of tribes occurred, becoming in Peru the paved road, with suspension See also:bridges and wayside inns, or tambos. In Mexico, and in Peru especially, the human back was utilized to its utmost extent, and in most parts of America harness adapted for carrying was made and frequently decorated with the best art. In the Mexican codices pictures of-men and women carrying are plentiful. Travelling on the water was an important activity in aboriginal times. Hundreds of thousands of miles of inland waters and archipelagoes were traversed. Commencing in the Arctic region, the Eskimo in his' See also:kayak, consisting of a framework of driftwood or bone covered with dressed sealskin, could See also:paddle down See also:east See also:Greenland, up the west See also:shore to See also: John Smith's Indians had a See also:fleet of dugouts. The same may be said of the Gulf states tribes, although they added rafts made of See also:reed. Along the archipelagoes of the North Pacific coast, from Mount St Elias to the See also:Columbia See also:river, the dugout attained its best. The Columbia river canoe resembled that of the See also:Amur, the See also:bow and stern being pointed at the water-See also:line. Poor dugouts and rafts, made by tying reeds together, constituted the water-craft of See also:California and Mexico until Central America is reached. The Caribs were the Haidas of the Caribbean Sea and northern South America. Their craft would See also:vie in form, in See also:size, and sea-worthiness with those of the North Pacific coast. The See also:catamaran and the reed boat were known to the Peruvians. The tribes of Venezuela and See also:Guiana, according to See also:Im Thurn, had both the dugout and the built-up See also:hull. The simplest form of See also:navigation in Brazil was the woodskin, a piece of bark stripped from a See also:tree and crimped at the ends. The sangada, with its See also:platform and See also:sail, belonging to the Brazilian coast, is spoken of as a good seaworthy craft. Finally, the Fuegian bark canoe, made in three pieces so that it can be taken apart and transported over hills and sewed together, ends the See also:series. The American craft was propelled by poling, paddling, See also:rowing,, and by rude sails of matting.
See also:ARCHAEOLOGY]
The aesthetic arts of the American aborigines cannot be studied apart from their languages, industries, social organizations, lore t the art. and worships. Art was limited most of all by poverty
in technical appliances. There were just as good materials and inspirations, but what could the best of them do without metal tools? One and all skilful to a surpassing degree —weavers, embroiderers, potters, painters, engravers, carvers, sculptors and jewellers,—they were wearied by drudgery and over-powered by a never-absent, weird and See also:grotesque See also:theology. The Eskimo engraved poorly, the Dene (Tinneh) embroidered in quill, the North Pacific tribes carved skilfully in See also:horn, See also:slate and See also:cedar, the California tribes had nimble fingers for basketry, the Sioux gloried in feathers and painted parfleche. The mound builders, Pueblo tribes, middle Americans and Peruvians, were potters of many See also:schools; gorgeous colour fascinated the Amazonians, the Patagonians delighted in skins, and even the Fuegians saw beauty in the See also:pretty See also:snail shells of their desolate island shores. Of the Mexican and Central American See also:sculpture and See also:architecture a competent See also:judge says that See also:Yucatan and the southern states of Mexico are not See also:rich in sculptures, apart from architecture; but in the valley of Mexico the human figure, animal forms, fanciful life motives in endless variety, were embodied in masks, See also:yokes, tablets, calendars, cylinders, disks, boxes, vases and ornaments. The Nahuatl lapidaries had at hand many varieties of workable and beautiful stone—onyx, See also:marble, See also:limestone, See also:quartz and quartz crystal, See also:granite, See also:syenite, See also:basalt, See also:trachyte, See also:rhyolite, See also:diorite and See also:obsidian, the best of material prepared for them by nature; while the Mayas had only limestone, and hard, tenacious rock with which to work it, and timber for burning See also:lime. However, looking over the whole See also: There is lack of unity in See also:plan and grouping, and an enormous See also:waste of material as compared with available See also:room. At Uxmal the mass of See also:masonry is to chamber space about as forty to one. The builders were " ignorant of some of the most essential principles of construction, and are to be regarded as hardly more than novices in the art" (Holmes, Archaeological Studies, &c.). As for the marvels of Peru, the walls of the See also:temple of the sun in See also:Cuzco, with their circular form and See also:curve inward, from the ground upward, are most imposing. Some of the See also:gates without lintels are beautiful, and the geometric patterns in the walls extremely effective. The same objection to over-massiveness might not apply here as in Mexico, owing to volcanic activity. Institutions in Europe and America have gathered abundant material for an intelligent comprehension of American Indian soctotogy. sociology. The See also:British Association had a See also:committee See also:reporting during many years on the tribes of north- west Canada. The American Museum in New See also:York has prepared a series of monographs on the tribes of the North Pacific coast, of northern Mexico, and of the Cordilleras of South America. The reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology in See also:Washington See also:cover the Eskimo, east and west, and all the tribes of the United States. In Mexico the former labours of Pimentel and Orozco y Berra are supplemented by those of See also:Bandelier, Penafiel, Herrera and Alfredo Chavero. See also:Otto Stoll's studies n See also:Guatemala, Berendt's in Central America, See also:Ernst's in Venezi&la, Im Thurn's in Guiana, those of Ehrenreich, von den Steinen, See also:Meyer in Brazil, or of Bandelier, See also:Bastian, Briihl, Middendorf, von See also:Tschudi in Peru, afford the historian of See also:comparative sociology ample ground- work fos a comprehensive grasp of South American tribes. In all parts of the western hemisphere society was organized on cognate kinship, real or artificial, the unit being the See also:clan. There were tribes where the basis of kinship was agnate, but these were the exceptions. The headship of the clan was sometimes hereditary, sometimes elective, but each clan had a totemic name, and the clans together constituted the tribe, the See also:bond being not land, but 815 See also:blood. Women could adopt prisoners of See also:war, in which See also:case the latter became their younger sons. When a confederacy was organized under a See also:council, intermarriage between tribes some-times occurred; an artificial kinship thus arose, in which event the council established the See also:rank of the tribes as See also:elder and younger See also:brother, grandfather, See also:father and sons, rendering the relationship and its vocabulary most intricate, but necessary in a social system in which See also:age was the predominant See also:consideration and See also:etiquette most exacting. (See Morgan, Tables of See also:Consanguinity, Smithsonian Contributions, xvii.) The Eskimo have a See also:regular system of animal totem marks and corresponding gentes. Powell sets forth the See also:laws of real and artificial kinship among the North American tribes, as well as tribal organization and government, the formation of confederacies, and the intricate rules of artificial kinship by which rank and See also:courtesy were established. (Many papers in Reports of Bur. Am. Ethnol.) Bandelier declares that in Mexico existed neither See also:state nor nation, nor See also:political society of any kind, but tribes representing dialects, and autonomous in matters of government, and forming confederacies for the purposes of self-See also:defence and See also:con-quest. The See also:ancient Mexican tribe was composed of twenty autonomous kins. According to See also:Brinton the social organization of ancient Peru was a government by a council of the gentes. The Inca was a war See also:chief elected by the council to carry out its commands. Among the Caribs a like social order prevailed; indeed, their family system is identical with the totem system of North American Indians. Dominated by the rule of blood relationship, the Indians regulated all co-operative activities on this basis. Not only See also:marriage, but speech and common industries, such as rowing a boat or See also:chasing a buffalo, were under its sway. It obtrudes itself in fine art, behaviour, See also:law-making, lore and See also:religion. In larger or smaller numbers of cognate kindred, for shorter or longer periods of time, near or far from home, the aborigines developed their legislatures, courts, armies,, See also:secret societies and priesthoods. In organization, engineering, strategy, offence and defence, the art of war was in the barbarous and the savage status or grade. One competent to judge asserts that See also:peace, not war, was the normal intertribal habit. They held frequent art of ~' war. intercourse, gave feasts and presents, and practised unbounded hospitality. Through this See also:traffic objects travelled far from home, and now come forth out of the tombs to perplex archaeologists. Remembering the organization of the tribe everywhere prevalent, it is not difficult to understand that the See also:army, or See also:horde, that stands for the idea, was assembled on the clan basis. The number of men arrayed under one banner, the time during which they might cohere, the distances from home they could See also: Dorsey, again, draws a distinction between lore narratives, which can be rehearsed without See also:fasting or See also:prayer, and rituals which require the most rigid preparation. In each culture province the Indians studied the heavenly bodies. The Arctic peoples regulated their lives by the long day and See also:night in the year; among the tribes in the arid region the place of sunrise was marked on the See also:horizon for each day; the tropical Indians were not so observant, but they worshipped the sun-See also:god above all. The Mayas had a calendar of 36o days, with See also:intercalary days; this See also:solar year was intersected by their sacred year of twenty See also:weeks of thirteen days each, and these assembled in bewildering cycles. Their knowledge of the air and its properties was no less profound. See also:Heat and cold, See also:rain and drought, the winds in relation to the points of the See also:compass, were nearest their wants and supplies, and were never out of their thoughts. In each province they had found the best springs, beds of clay, paint, soapstone, flinty rock, friable stone for sculpture and hard, tenacious stone for tools, and used ashes for See also:salt. The vegetal See also:kingdom was no less See also:familiar to them. Edible plants, and those for dyes and medicines, were on their lists, as well as wood for tools, utensils and weapons, and fibres for textiles. They knew poisonous plants, and could eliminate noxious properties. The universal reliance on animal life stimulated the study of the animal See also: Society was organized in most cases on animal clans, and religion was largely zoomorphic. The hunting tribes knew well the nature and habits of animals, their See also:anatomy, their migrations, and could interpret their voices. Out of this practical knowledge, coupled with the belief in personeity, grew a folk-lore so vast that if it were written down the world would not contain the books. The religion of the American aborigines, so far as it can be made a subject of investigation, consisted (r) in what the tribes believed Religion. about See also:spirits, or shades, and the spirit world—its organization, place, activities and relation to our world; and (2) in what they did in response to these beliefs. The former was their See also:creeds, the latter their cults or worships. In these worships, social organization, religious dramas and See also:paraphernalia, amusement and gambling, and private religion or fetichism, found place. In order to obtain an intelligent grasp of the religion of tribes in their several culture provinces, it must be understood: (I) That the form of belief called See also:animism by See also:Tylor (more correctly speaking, personeity), was universal; everything was somebody, alive, sentient, thoughtful, wilful. This personeity lifts the majority of earthly phenomena out of the merely See also:physical world and places them in the spirit world. Theology and science are one. All is supernatural, waken. (2) That there existed more than one self or soul or shade in any one of these personalities, and these shades had the See also:power not only to go away, but to transform their bodily tenements at will; a bird, by raising its head, could become a See also:man; the latter, by going on all fours, could become a See also:deer. (3) That the regulative side of the spirit world was the natural outcome of the clan social system and the tribal government in each tribe. Even one's personal name had reference to the world of ghosts. The See also:affirmation that American aborigines believed in an all-pervading, omnipotent Spirit is entirely inconsistent with the very nature of the case. (4) Worship was everywhere dramatic. Only here and there among the higher tribes were bloody sacrifices in See also:vogue, and prayers were in pantomime. In the culture areas the environment gave specific characters to the religion. In the Arctic province the overpowering influence of meteorological phenomena manifested itself both in the See also:doctrine of shades and in their shamanistic practices. The See also:raven created the world. The Dene (Tinneh) myths resembled those of the Eskimo, and all the hunting tribes of eastern Canada and United States and the Mississippi valley have a See also:mythology based upon their zootechny and their See also:totemism. The religious concep-tions of the fishing tribes on the Pacific coast between Mount St Elias and the Columbia river are worked out by Boas; the trans-formation from the hunting to the agricultural mode of life was accompanied by changes in belief and worship quite as See also:radical. These have been carefully studied by Cushing, Stevenson and Fewkes. The pompous ceremonials of the civilized tribes of Mexico and the Cordilleras in South America, when analysed, reveal only a higher grade of the prevailing idea. Im Thurn says of the Carib: " All objects, animate and inanimate, seem exactly of the same nature, except that they differ in the See also:accident of bodily form." These mythological ideas and symbols of the American aborigines were See also:woven in their textiles, painted on their robes and furniture, burned into their pottery, See also:drawn in sand Mosaics on deserts, and perpetuated in the only sculptures worthy of the name, in wood and stone. They are inseparable from industry; language, social organization and See also:custom wait upon them: they explain the universe in the savage mind. The archaeology of the western hemisphere should be divided as follows: (r) that of Indian activities; (2) the question of man's existence in a prior geological period. There is no dividing line between first-contact ethnology and logy. pre-contact archaeology. Historians of this time, both north and south of Panama, described tools and products of activities similar to those taken from beneath the See also:soil near by. The archaeologist recovers his specimens from waste places, See also:cave deposits, abandoned villages, caches, shell-heaps, refuse-heaps, enclosures, mounds, but rings, earthworks, garden beds, quarries and workshops, petroglyphs, trails, See also:graves and cemeteries, cliff and cavate dwellings, ancient pueblos, ruined stone dwellings, forts and temples, canals or reservoirs. The See also:relics found in these places are material records of language, industries, fine arts, social life, lore and religion. Here and there in the Arctic province remains of old village sites have been examined, and collections brought away by whalers and exploring expeditions. Two facts are established—namely, that the Eskimo lived formerly farther south on the Atlantic coast, and that, aboriginally, they were not specially See also:adept in See also:carving and See also:etching. The old apparatus of hunting and fishing is quite primitive. The Dene (Tinneh) province in Alaska and north-western Canada yields nothing to the See also:spade. Algonquin-Iroquois Canada, thanks to the Geological Survey and the See also:Department of See also:Education in See also:Ontario, has revealed old Indian camps, mounds and earthworks along the northern drainage of Lakes See also:Erie and Ontario, and pottery in a curved line from See also:Montreal to Lake of the See also:Woods. Throughout eastern United States shell-heaps, quarries, workshops and See also:camp sites are in abundance. The Sioux and the Muskhogee province is the mound area, which extends also into Canada along the Red river. The forms of these are earth-heaps, conical mounds, walls of earth, rectangular pyramids and See also:effigies (See also:Putnam). See also: These cover Arizona'and New Mexico, with extensions into See also:Colorado on the north and Mexico on the south. The reports of work done in this province for several years past form a library of See also:text and See also:illustration. Cliff dwellings, cavate houses, pueblos and caws are all brought into a series with-out a break by Bandelier, Cushing, Fewkes, Holmes, Hough, ARCHAEOLOGY] Mindeleff, NordenskjOld, Powell and Stevenson. From Casa Grande, in See also:Chihuahua, to Quemada, in See also:Zacatecas, Carl S. Lumholtz found survivals of the cliff dwellers. Between Quemada and See also:Copan, in See also:Honduras, is an unbroken series of mural structures. The traditions agree with the monuments, whatever may be objected to assigning any one ruin to the Toltec, the Chichimec or the Nahuatl, that there are distinct varieties in ground-plan, motives, stone-craft, See also:wall decorations and sculptures. Among these splendours in stone the following recent explorers must be the student's See also:guide: See also:Bowditch, See also:Charnay, Forstemann, F. T. See also:Goodman, See also:Gordon, Holmes, Maudslay, See also:Mercer, Putnam, Sapper, See also:Marshall H. Saville, Seler, See also:Cyrus Thomas, See also:Thompson. A list of the ruins, printed in the handbook on Mexico published by the Department of State in Washington, covers several pages. The See also:special characteristics of each are to be seen partly in the skill and See also:genius of their makers, and partly in the exigencies of the site and the available materials. A fascinating study in this connexion is that of the water-supply. The cenotes or underground reservoirs were the important factors in locating the ruins of northern Yucatan. From Honduras to Panama the See also:urn burials, the pottery, the rude carved images and, above all, the grotesque jewellery, absorb the archaeologist's attention. (Publications of See also:Peabody Museum.) Beyond Chiriqui southward is El Dorado. Here also bewildering products of ancient metallurgy tax the See also:imagination as to the processes involved, and questions of acculturation also interfere with true scientific results. The fact remains, however, that the curious metal-craft of the narrow See also:strip along the Pacific from Mexico to Titicaca is the greatest of archaeological enigmas. Bandelier, Dorsey, Holmes, Seler and Uhle have taken up the questions anew. Beyond Colombia are Ecuador and Peru, where, in the widening of the continent, architecture, stone-working, pottery, metallurgy, textiles are again exalted. Among the Cordilleras in their western and interior drainages, over a space covering more than twenty degrees of See also:latitude, the student comes again upon massive ruins. The materials on the coast were clay and See also:gravel wrought into See also:concrete, sun-dried bricks and pise, or rammed work, cut stalks of plants formed with clay a kind of See also:staff, and lintels were made by burying stems of calla brava (Gynerium saccharoides) in blocks of pise. On the uplands structures were of stone laid up in a dozen ways. Walls for buildings, garden terraces and aqueducts were straight or sloping. Doorways were usually square, but corbelled archways and gateways surmounted with sculptures were not uncommon. Ornamentation was in carving and in colour, the latter far more effectively used than in Middle America. A glance at the exquisite textiles reveals at once the See also:inspiration of mural decorations. The most prolific source of Peruvian relics is the sepulchres or huacas, the same materials being used in their construction as in building the houses. Here, owing to a dry See also:climate, are the dead, clad and surrounded with food, vessels, tools and art products, as in life. The textiles and the pottery can only be mentioned; their quality and endless varieties astonish the technologist. In the Carib province there are no mural remains, but the pottery, with its excessive onlaying, recalls Mexico and the jewellers of Chiriqui. The polished stone work is superb, finding its climax in See also:Porto Rico, which seems to have been the sacred island of the Caribs. For the coasts of South America the vast shell-heaps are the repositories of ancient history. Since 188o organized institutions of See also:anthropology have taken the spade out of the hands of individual explorers in order to know Pa/aeo- the truth concerning Glacial or See also:Pleistocene man. The tlthlc man. geologist and the trained archaeologist are associated. In North America the sites have been examined by the Peabody Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and others, with the result that only the Trenton gravels have any See also:standing. The so-called See also:palaeolithic implements are everywhere. The question is one of See also:geology, simply to decide whether those re-covered at Trenton are ancient. Putnam and See also:George See also:Frederick See also:Wright maintain that they are ancient, Alex. See also:Francis Chamber-lain and Holmes that they are post-Glacial and comparatively recent (Am. Anthrop., N.S. i. pp. 107, 614). Elsewhere in the817 United States fossilized bones, crania of a See also:low order, association of human remains with those of fossil animals are not necessarily evidence of vast antiquity. In South America the shell-heaps, of enormous size, are supposed to show that the animals have under-gone changes in size and that such vast masses require untold ages to accumulate. The first is a biological problem. As for the second, the elements of savage voracity and wastefulness, of uncertainty as to cubical contents on uneven surface, and of the number of mouths to fill, make it hazardous to construct a See also:chronological table on a shell-heap. Hudson's village sites in Patagonia contain pottery, and that brings them all into the territory of Indian archaeology. Ameghino refers deposits in Patagonia, from which undoubted human bones and relics have been exhumed, to the See also:Miocene. The question is of the age of the sediments from which these were taken. The bones of other associated animals) says John B. Hatcher, demonstrate the Pleistocene nature of the deposits, by which is not necessarily meant older See also:Quaternary, for their horizons have not been differentiated and correlated in South America. Hatcher believes that there is no good evidence in favour of a great antiquity for man in Patagonia." In a cave near Consuelo See also:Cove, southern Patagonia, have been found fragments of the skin and bones of a large ground-See also:sloth, Grypotherium (Neomylodon) listai, associated with human remains. Ameghino argues that this creature is still living, while Dr Moreno advances the theory that the animal has been See also:extinct for a long period, and that it was domesticated by a people of great antiquity, who dwelt there prior to the Indians. Rodolfo Hauthal, See also:Walter E. See also:Roth and Dr R. See also:Lehmann Nitsche See also:review their work with the conclusion, not unanimously held by them, that man co-existed here with all the other animals whose remains were found during an inter-Glacial period. See also:Arthur Smith See also:Woodward sums up the question in Proceedings of the Zoological Society of See also:London, closing with this See also:sentence: "If we accept the confirmatory evidence afforded by Mr See also:Spencer See also:Moore, we can hardly refuse to believe that this ground-sloth was kept and fed by an See also:early race of men." These are individual opinions, subject to revision by that See also:court of appeals, the institutional See also:judgment. (See also:Summary in H. Hesketh See also:Prichard, Through the See also:Heart of Patagonia (1902), Appendix A.) The following represent a select list of works on the American aborigines:—H. H. See also:Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, vols. i.-v. (1874-1876) ; A. F. Bandelier, Papers on the Sedentary Indians of New Mexico (see Papers of the Archaeological See also:Institute of America, 1881, 189o, 1892); also Toth, zrth, 12th Reports Peabody Museum; See also:Franz Boas, The Central Eskimo (6th See also:Rep. Bur. Am. Ethnol., 1888) ; also Bulls. 20, 26, 27 and Reports Brit. Assoc. 1885–1898; See also: 28, Bur; Am. Ethnol.; also The Temples of the See also:Cross and Mayan Nomenclature (See also:Cambridge, Mass., 1906; See also:David See also:Boyle, Reports of the Provincial Museum of See also:Toronto; on Archaeology and Ethnology of Canada; D. G. Brinton, Library of Aboriginal American Literature,vols. i.-viii. (See also:Philadelphia, i 82'2-t89o) ; The American Race (New York, 1891) ; Gustav Brahl, See also:Die Culturvolker Amerikas (See also:Cincinnati, 1889) ; See also:Desire Charnay, The Ancient Cities of the New World (New York, 1887) ; See also:Frank Cushing, Zuni Folk Tales (New York, 1905); See also: Nat. Hist. (New York, 1905) ; See also:Paul Ehrenreich, Die Volkerstamme Brasiliens (See also:Berlin, 1892) ; A nthro pologische Studien fiber die Urbewohner Brasiliens (Berlin, 1897) ; LivingstonFarrand, The American Nation: A History, vol. ii. (New York, 1904), with copious references; J. W. Fewkes, A See also:Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, vols. i.-iv. (Boston, 1891—1894) ; See also:Pliny See also:Earle Goddard, Life and Culture of the Hupa, Univ. of Cal., vol. i. (1903); papers by F. W. Hodge, List of Publications of the Bur. Am. Ethnol., Bull. 31 (1906); W. H. Holmes, Handbook of the Indians North of Mexico; Alice C. See also:Fletcher, Francis la Flesche and John Comfort See also:Fillmore, " A Study of See also:Omaha Indian See also:Music," Peabody Museum Archaeological and Ethnological Papers, i. (1893) ; George See also:Byron Gordon, " Researches in Central America," See also:Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. i. Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6; and Proc. Mus. Univ. of Pa.; William H. Holmes, Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico (See also:Chicago, 1895) ; Walter Hough, Archaeological Field Work in N.-E. Arizona, Museum-Gates Expedition of 1901; See also:Report U.S. See also:National Museum, 1901; See also:Ales. Hrdlicka, " The Chichimecs," Am. Anthropologist, 1903, pp. 385-440; also papers on physical anthropology in the Handbook and Pubs. of the National Museum and the American Museum; See also:Archer See also: (1906), with bibliography; See also:Joseph D. McGuire, " The Stone Hammer and its Various Uses," Am. Anthropologist, iv. (1891) ; Teobert Maler, " Researches in Usumatsintla Valley " (1901—1903), Peabody Museum Mem. ii.; Clements R. See also:Markham, Cuzco (London, 1856, and See also:Hakluyt See also:Soc.; 1859) ; See also:Marquis de Nadaillac, L'Amerique prehistorique (See also:Paris, 1883) ; H. J. Nieboer, Slavery as an Industrial System (The See also:Hague, 190o) ; G. Nordenskjiild, The Cliff Dwellers of the See also:Mesa Verde, Colorado (See also:Stockholm, 1893) ; Zelia See also:Nuttall, The See also:Book of the Life of the Ancient Mexicans (Univ. of Cal., 1903); An Ancient Mexican Codex, special publications of the Peabody Museum (Cambridge, Mass., 1902); See also:Edward John See also:Payne, History of the New World called America (vol. i. 1892, vol. ii. 1899, Ox-See also:ford) ; See also:Antonio Penafiel, Monumentos del Arte Mexicano antiguo(Berlin, 1890) ; See also: Am. Ethnol. 5-19; J. W. Powell, Indian Linguistic Families," 7th Report Bureau of American Ethnology (1891); H. Hesketh Prichard, Through the Heart of Patagonia (New York, 1902) (appendix on the co-existence of See also:mylodon and man) ; F. W. Putnam, " Archaeology and Ethnology," vol. vii., See also:Wheeler Surveys, &c. (Washington, 1879) ; Charles See also:Rau, The See also:Palenque Tablet, Smithsonian Contributions, Washington; Caecilie Seler, Auf See also:alien Wegen in Mexico and Guatemala (Berlin, 1900) ; Harlan I. Smith, " Archaeological Discoveries in North-Western America," Bull. Am. See also:Geographical Society (May 1906) ; also Mem. Am, Mus. Nat. History (New York) ; Karl von den Steinen, Unter den NaturvOlkern Zentral-Brasiliens (Berlin, 1884) ; E. H. Thompson, " Explorations in Loltun and Labna," Memoirs Peabody Museum of Archaeol. and Ethnol. i. (1897); Max Uhle, " Explorations in Peru," Memoir Univ. of Cal. i.; Washington Matthews, See also:Navaho Legends (Cambridge, Mass.); See also:Anne See also:Cary Maudslay and See also:Alfred See also:Percival Maudslay, A Glimpse at Guatemala (London, 1899) (Maudslay's whole series in Biologia Centrali Americana, 1889—1902, are valuable) ; H. G. Mercer, The See also: Morgan, Smithsonian Contributions, xvii., 1869; and Ancient Society, New York. 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