MINUSCULES .—Very few of these are of real importance. The most valuable are the following: I. The See also:

• FERRAR, NICHOLAS (1592-1637)
• FERRAR, ROBERT (d. 1555)

33 (S 48) at See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

(See also:

• CHRISTIANIA (officially KRISTIANIA)

According to See also:

• JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– )
• JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340–420)

Vercellensis (a) of the 5th century and cod. Veronensis (b) of the same date (the latter being the better), and by others of less importance. It is possible that a later variety of it is found in cod. Ivlonacensis (q) of the 7th century, and cod. Brixianus (f) of the 6th century, and this used to be called the See also:

• ITALIC

Corbeiensis (f or ff) of the loth century at St See also:

• PETERSBURG

C. Burkitt's " Old Latin and the Itala " (Texts and Studies, iv. 3), as well as in all books dealing with Textual See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

He seems to have taken as the basis of his See also:

• WORK

But these were not successful, and in the 13th century, instead of revisions, attempts were made to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

Its history is best given in S. Berger's Histoire de la Vulgate (Paris, 1893), in which a good bibliography is given on pp. xxxii.-xxxiv. The section in See also:

• KENYON, LLOYD KENYON, 1ST BARON (1732-1802)

Orient. Quart. 528) which were bought in See also:

• EGYPT

Rendel Harris and F. C. Burkitt, with an introduction by Mrs Lewis. It is a palimpsest MS., and the upper See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

This is represented by many MSS. dating from the 5th century. It has been proved almost to F shito. demonstration by F. C. Burkitt that the portion contain- See also:

• ING

Gwilliam, Tetraevangelium Sanctum (Oxford, 1901); its relations to Rabbula's revision are shown by F. C. Burkitt, S. See also:

• EPHRAIM

The four former are found in some MSS. of the Peshito, as the Philoxenian was used to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

The source of these notes seems to have been old MSS. from the library of the Enaton near See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Usually quoted as SyrPa and by Tischendorf as SyrL1Q1 [The text may be found in Lewis and Gibson's The Palestinian Syriac Lectionary (London, 1899), (Gospels), and in Studia Sinaitica, See also:

• PART

Tatian's Diatessaron. This is something more than a version. It was originally a See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

Burkitt, Evangelion da Mepharreshe (Cambridge, 1904, vol. ii.).] Inter-relation of Syriac Versions.—The relations which subsist between the various Syriac versions remain to be discussed. There is little See also:

• ROOM

A.D. 175), who brought the Diatessaron from Rome and translated it into Syriac. There, in the last days of the 2nd century, when See also:

• SERAPION, or SARAPION

It need not, but may, be earlier than the 4th century. The Sahidic is not so well preserved. G. Horner's researches tend to show that the Greek text on which it was based was different from that represented by the Bohairic, and probably was akin to the " Western " text, perhaps of the type used by Clement of Alexandria. Unfortunately none of the MSS. seems to be good, and at present it is impossible to make very definite use of the version. It is possible that this is the See also:

• OLDEST

The Armenian Version.—The early history of this version is obscure, but it seems probable that there were two translations Armenian. made in the 4th century: (1) by Mesrop with the help of Hrofanos (See also:

• RUFINUS, TYRANNIUS

3), cap. 5; on the supposed connexion of Mark xvi. 8 if. with Aristion mentioned in this version, see esp. Swete's The Gospel according to St Mark (London, 1902), p. exi.] Other secondary versions which are sometimes quoted are the See also:

• GOTHIC

Bezae, but is clearly far from identical; Origen in the main has the text of B ; Athanasius a somewhat later variety of the same type, while Cyril has the so-called Alexandrian text found especially in L. Group 4 has a peculiar text which cannot be identified with any definite group of MSS. For further treatment of the importance of this evidence see the section Textual Criticism below. [There is as yet but little satisfactory literature on this subject. Outstanding work is P. M. See also:

• BARNARD, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS PORTER (1809–1889)
• BARNARD, GEORGE GREY (1863— )
• BARNARD, HENRY (1811-1900)
• BARNARD, JOHN
• BARNARD, LADY ANNE (1750–1825)

L.) 3. Textual Criticism. The problem which faces the textual critic of the New Testament is to reconstruct the original text from the materials supplied by the MSS., versions, and quotations in early writers, which have been described in the preceding section on the apparatus criticus. His See also:

• OBJECT

Ximenes used, but it is See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

These are 16mo volumes, but the third and most important edition (1550) was a See also:

• FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. folium, leaf, but also frequently an adaptation of the Ital. foglio)

John See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

J. A. See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

His first edition was published in 1774-1775, his second and improved edition in 1796 (vol. i.) and 18o6. For the second edition he had the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

A. Scholz, a pupil of Hug, inspected and partially collated nearly a thousand MSS. and assigned See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

Gregory after Tischendorf's death, is the standard critical edition which is used by scholars all over the See also:

• WORLD

F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort (commonly quoted as WH), the Cambridge scholars, supplied the deficiencies of Lachmann, and without giving up the advantages of his system, and its development by Tischendorf, brought back the study of the text of the New Testament to the methods of Griesbach. Their great work was published in 1881 under the title of The New Testament in the Original Greek. Their view of the history of the text is that a comparison of the evidence shows that, while we can distinguish more than one type of text, the most clearly discernible of all the varieties is first recognizable in the quotations of See also:

• CHRYSOSTOM

EKLilXUO/.LEV aUTOV, found in DX fam 1, fam.13 28 latt. It is impossible, in See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

The great importance of this work of WH lies in the facts that it not merely condemns but explains the late Antiochene text, and that it attempts to consider in an See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

The outline of the chief works is as follows: F. Blass.—In his various books on the Acts and third gospel Blass has propounded a new theory as to the " Western " text. He was struck by the fact that neither the Western can be shown to be derived from the Neutral, nor the Neutral from the Western. He therefore conceived the idea that perhaps both texts were See also:

• LUCAN

Another group which Bousset has tried to identify is that headed by B, which he connects with the recension of Hesychius, but this theory, though widely accepted in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

It has been approached from two sides, according as critics have considered the Western or the Neutral and Alexandrian texts. The Western Text.—This was regarded by WH as a definite text, found in D, the Old Latin and the Old Syriac; and it is an essential part of their theory that in the main these three witnesses represent one text. On the evidence which they had WH were undoubtedly justified, but discoveries and investigation have gone far to make it impossible to hold this view any longer. We now know more about the Old Latin, and, thanks to Mrs Lewis' See also:

• DISCOVERY

A more probable See also:

• SUGGESTION

The third stage is WH's Alexandrian, found in the quotations of Cyril of Alexandria and a few MSS. (esp. CL „A 4'). It is clearly a re-See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

The only possible sources of evidence, apart from the discovery of fresh MSS., are the versions, and they do not point to existence in the 2nd or 3rd century of texts agreeing with the great uncials. It is also possible to argue, as WH did, on the same side, that the purest form of text was pre-served in Alexandria, from which the oldest uncials are directly or indirectly derived, but this argument has been weakened if not finally disposed of by the evidence of Clement of Alexandria. It is, of course, conceivable that Clement merely used See also:

• BAD, BCD

The assured canonicity of the whole New Testament resulted in its use by the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

. This conjecture they make from the 2nd Ep. to See also:

• TIMOTHY
• TIMOTHY, FIRST EPISTLE TO
• TIMOTHY, SECOND EPISTLE TO

Furthermore, the prevailing philosophies of the 18th century tended to demand that a real divine revelation should be one which expressed itself in a form convincing to the reason of the See also:

• AVERAGE

The characteristic of the rationalists was the attempt to explain away the New Testament miracles as coincidences or naturally occurring events, while at the same time they held as tenaciously as possible to the accuracy of the letter of the New Testament narratives. The opposite See also:

• SWING, DAVID (1830-1894)

The corner-See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

The Later main position was not so much erroneous as one-sided. views. The See also:

• QUARREL

This document is by many scholars identified with the " See also:

• LOGIA

It is idle indeed to rewrite the Gospel narratives in the Aramaic dialect spoken by Christ and the apostles, but the main watchwords of the Gospel theology—phrases like " the See also:

• KINGDOM

The fathers of the primitive church had been nearer the truth with the years 3 or 2 B.C. (see Irenaeus, Haer. in. xxi. 3 [See also:

• XXIV

18–ii. 2z).—The See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

The notice in the Gospel, it is suggested, See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

41) should have taken a census of his own native state "after the Roman manner." ' It is a curious coincidence that a medieval Jew, R. Abarbanel (See also:

• ABRABANEL, ISAAC

The See also:

• INTERVAL

1715, fol. 19 b; Iren. loc cit.). St Luke's phrase is a general one, " about thirty years old," and cannot be so pressed as to exclude some See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

25; or (ii.) St Luke has made here a second error in chronology, caused perhaps in this case by reckoning back from the Crucifixion, and only allowing one year to the ministry of Christ. (b) Evidence of St John's Gospel (ii. 13, 20).—A terminus ad quem for the Baptism is the synchronism of the first Passover mentioned after it with the forty-See also:

• SIXTH

4. The interval between the Baptism and the Crucifixion, or, in other words, the duration of the public ministry of Christ. (a) Evidence of the Synoptic Tradition and of St Mark's Gospel (ii. 23, vi. 39, X1V. r).—The order of events in the primitive synoptic tradition appears to be faithfully reproduced in St Mark; and if this order is chronological, Christ's ministry lasted at least two years, since the plucking of the ears of See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

The second and larger See also:

• HALF

35, " say ye not that there is yet a period of four months and See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

13 and the Passover of xi. 55. But of the four authorities alleged, Irenaeus (I I. xxii. 3 [xxxiii. I]) and the Alogi (ap. Epiphanius, Haer. li. 22) were giving catalogues of Passovers " observed " by Christ (at Jerusalem), and therefore naturally omitted a mere chronological reference like vi. 4: Cyril of Alexandria, in so far as his evidence is adverse to the words, appears to be incorporating a passage from the Commentary of Origen, not extant in loc. ; and the only writer who perhaps really did omit the words—with the view, no doubt, of reconciling the witness of the fourth Gospel with the then widely spread tradition of the single-year ministry--is Origen himself. (ii.) Interpretation (a) iv. 35: which is to be taken literally, the " four months to harvest " (about January), or the " fields white to harvest " (about May)? It does not seem possible to rule out either interpretation; the choice between them will follow from the view taken of the general chronological arrangement of the Gospel.

(3) v. i.: if " the feast " is read, a choice remains between Passover and Tabernacles (the definite article would not be very definite after all) ; if the more probable " a feast," the greater feasts are presumably excluded, but a choice remains between, at any rate, See also:

• PENTECOST

The former class of proposals will as a rule hardly affect the chronology of the Gospel; the latter will affect it vitally. The distinction here drawn may be illustrated from the earliest instance of the former and one of the latest of the latter. In 1871 See also:

• ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. &oxt3tauovor)

4, Passover is near; iv. 35, the fields white to harvest=May; v. 1, "a feast "=Pentecost; vii. 2, Tabernacles; x. 22, Dedication; xi. 55, Passover is near; xii. 1, Jesus at See also:

• BETHANY (mod. el-'Azariyeh)

39) both belong to the feeding of the 5000, one of the few points of actual contact between the two Gospels. The question, however, may still be raised, whether these time-indications of the two Gospels are exhaustive, whether (that is) two years, and two years only, are to be allotted to the ministry. Irenaeus (II. xxii. 3-6 [xxxiii. 1-4]), in favour of a ministry of not less than ten years, appeals (i.) to the tradition of Asia Minor; (ii.) to the See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

Strom. i. 145, Vi. 279; See also:

• JULIUS

37 (Josephus, See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

3-v. 3. The Crucifixion at some previous Passover would then fall not later than A.D. 33. (c) The Day of the Week.—The Resurrection on " the first day of the week " (See also:

• SUNDAY

Early Christian tradition is unanimous on this side; either the 14th is mentioned, or the Crucifixion is made the See also:

• ANTITYPE (Gr. avriruaos)

To neither question can an answer be given in terms so precise as to exclude some latitude, but to both with sufficient exactness to rule out at once three of the six years. (i.) The difficulty with regard to the month is to know how the commencement of the Jewish year was fixed—in what years an extra month was intercalated before Nisan. If the Paschal full moon was, as in later Christian times, the first after the spring See also:

• EQUINOX (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and nox, night)

But this relation was not, it would seem, regulated by the date, real or supposed, of the equinox. Christian controversialists from Anatolius of See also:

• LAODICEA
• LAODICEA, SYNOD OF

Mar. 17 Mar. 17 Mar. 19 F. Ap. 15 Ap. 16 Ap. 18 „ 30 Tu. Ap. 4 Ap. 5 Ap. 7 „ 31 Sat.

Mar. 24 Mar. 25 Mar. 27 32 Sat. Ap. 12 Ap. 12 Ap. 14 33 W. Ap. 1 Ap. 1-2 Ap. 3 or 4.

It will be seen at once that Friday cannot have fallen on Nisan 14th in any of the three years A.D. 28, 31 and 32. The choice is narrowel down to A.D. 29, Friday, 18th March (Friday, 15th April, would no doubt be too early even for the 14th of Nisan); A.D. 30, Friday 7th April; and A.D. 33, Friday, 3rd April. (e) The See also:

• CIVIL

CHRONOLOGY] " at the sixth See also:

• HOUR

Strom. i. 147; Origen, Hom. in Jerem. xiv. 13; cf. c. Cels. iv. 22. Tiberius 16 by Julius Africanus (Routh, Rell. Sacr. ii. 301-304), and pseudo-Cyprian de pascha computus (A.D. 243), § 20. The consulship of the two Gemini by Lactantius, Div. Inst. 1v. x.

18, and (Lactantius?)• de morte pers. § 2; the consulship of the two Gemini= Tiberius 18 by Hippolytus, See also:

• COMM

1 with a one-year ministry, and even to treat Tiberius 15 as an unintelligent repetition from St Luke—though the omission to allow a single year for the ministry would be so See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

Such traditions must be found, if anywhere, in Palestine and Syria, in Asia Minor, in Rome, not in Egypt; within the Church, not among the Gnostics. The date which makes the most obvious claim to satisfy these conditions would be the 25th of March, as given by Hippolytus, [Tert.] adv. Judaeos, and the Acts of Pilate (according to all extant MSS. and versions, but see below), loco. citt.—the same three authorities who bear the earliest witness for the consuls of the year of the Crucifixion—and by many later writers. It cannot be correct, since no full moon occurs near it in any of the possible years; yet it must be891 very early, too early to be explained with Dr See also:

• SALMON
• SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904)

29, was one of the three alternative dates for the Crucifixion which on astronomical and calendar grounds were found (see above, 5d) to be possible. Thus A.D. 29 is the year, the 18th of March is the day, to which Christian tradition (whatever value, whether much or ,little, be ascribed to it) appears to point. Further, the Baptism was tentatively placed in A.D. 26-27; the length of the ministry was fixed, with some approach to certainty, at between two and three years, and here too the resultant date for the Crucifixion would be the Passover of A.D. 29. To sum up: the various dates and intervals, to the approximate determination of which this article has been devoted, do not claim separately more than a tentative and probable value. But it is submitted that their harmony and convergence give them some additional claim to See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

29 (30) on the one hand, and on the other the persecution of Nero in A.D. 64 and the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Of the events in Christian history which fall between these limits it must be admitted that there are many which with our present information we cannot date with exactness. But the book of Acts, our only continuous authority for the period, contains two synchronisms with See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

39-40; (iii.) ruler of the whole of Palestine (with Abilene), on the accession of Claudius at the beginning of A.D. 41. josephus's Jewish See also:

• WARS

44 to 48; the third, Cumanus, was appointed in A.D. 48; and the fourth, Felix, in A.D. 52. Under Tiberius Alexander, i.e. in A.D. 46 or 47, occurred the great See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

3, 6, 7, 21). The same places were visited in See also:

• REVERSE

50. No delay was then made on the Asiatic side: it may still have been in spring when St Paul crossed to Europe and began the course of See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

55. From Ephesus he went into Europe, and after " much teaching " given to the churches of See also:

• MACEDONIA

Consequently A.D. 58 appears to be the earliest date possible for the arrival of Festus. On the other hand, a later date for Festus is not absolutely excluded. It is possible that the first missionary journey should be placed in A.D. 48 instead of A.D. 47; and it is possible, though not probable, that the missionary journeys should be spread over one year more than has been suggested above. At any rate, then, the alternative is open that everydate given above, from A.D. 47 to A.D. 58, should be moved on one year, with the result of placing Festus's arrival in A.D. 59. It is now time to run to the direct evidence for the date of Festus's arrival as See also:

• PROCURATOR (Lat. procurare, to take care of)

The repla See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

It is argued that " many years " cannot mean less than six or seven, so that St Paul must have been speaking at earliest in 58 or 59, and Felix will have left Judaea at earliest in 6o or 61. But this argument overlooks the fact that Felix had been in some position which might properly be described as that of " judge for this nation " before he became governor of all Palestine in A.D. 52. In the words of Tacitus, Felix was at the time of that See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

And there is no need at all to suppose that all the incidents which the historian masses under his account of Felix were successive: events in Emesa, See also:

• CHALCIS

The whole of this theory appears to the present writer to be a gigantic See also:

• MARE

57 as that of the recall, while the second will apply to any of the earlier years ®f Nero's reign. In the result, then, the arguments brought forward in favour of each extreme fail to prove their case, but at the same time prove something against the opposite view. Thus the point that Josephus catalogues the events of Felix's procuratorship under Nero cannot be pressed to bring down Felix's tenure as far as 6o or 61, but it does seem to exclude as early a termination as 56, or even 57. Conversely, the influence of Pallas at See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

25, &c., combined with what we know from Tacitus of the course of the persecution, and from Gains of Rome, ap. Eus. ii: 25, of the See also:

• BURIAL

1–vi. 7, vi. 8–ix. 31, ix. 32–xii. 24, Xii. 25–xvi. 5, xvi. 6–xix. 20, xix. 21–See also:

• XXVIII

Of these the three last extend respectively from the death of Herod to the start for Europe in the second missionary journey (A.D. 44 to the spring of 50 [5r]), from the start for Europe to the end of the long stay at Ephesus (A.D. 50 [51] to the spring of A.D. 55 [56]), and from the departure from Ephesus to the end of the two years' captivity at Rome (A.D. 55 [56] to the beginning of A.D. 61 [62]). It will be seen that these periods are of more or less the same length, namely, six (or seven) years, five years, six years. There is, therefore, some slight presumption that the three earlier periods, which together cover about fifteen years, were intended by so See also:

• ARTISTIC

The apostle tells us that on his conversion he retired from See also:

• DAMASCUS

30. The fourteen years reckoned back from the latter (c. A.D. 46) would bring us to A.D. 32--33 as the latest possible date for the conversion. With the older view, on the other hand, the fourteen years reckoned from the council in A.D. 49 [5o] would allow us to bring down the conversion to A.D. 36. The new view clears away some See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

64–65. For the previous period, on the other hand, from A.D. 29 to A.D. 44, it appeared impossible in our present state of knowledge to state conclusions other than in the most general form.