See also:

• DARIUS (Pers. Darayavaush; Old Test. Daryavesh)

Nevertheless, Darius See also:

• LEFT

But the Empire. influences of the See also:

• HAREM

Among these tribes were the Carduchians in Zagros, the Cossaeans and Uxians in the interior of See also:

• ELAM

All the more clearly, then, was the inner weakness of the empire revealed by the revolts of the satraps. These were facilitated by the custom—quite contrary to the See also:

• ORIGINAL

Ninety years after Salamis and Plataea, the See also:

• GOAL

In Asia Minor and See also:

• PHOENICIA

But, in its efforts to extend its power over the Greek states, it was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

VI. The Macedonian Dominion.—How Alexander conquered Persia, and how he framed his world-empire,' cannot be related here. The essential fact, however, is that after the victory of Gaugamela (Oct. 1, 331 B.c.) and, still Alexander the Great: more completely, after the assassination of Darius avenged according to the Persian See also:

• LAWS

Therefore, as early as 330 B.C., he drafted 30,000 See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

But the attempt to maintain the empire in its unity proved impracticable; and almost immediately there began the embittered war, waged for several decades by the generals (diadochi), for the See also:

• INHERITANCE

The See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

7). Of Greek the other Greek towns in Asia scarcely any were Towns in founded by Alexander himself, though the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

" Media," says See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Antiochus's general Demodamas crossed the Jaxartes and set up an See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

Apart The Persian from the See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

In 282 B.C. Seleucus took the field against Lysimachus, and annexed his dominions in Asia Minor and Thrace. In 281 he Independent was assassinated in See also:

• CROSSING

In other provinces, too, insurrection See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

After waging an unsuccessful war with Ptolemy IV. for the conquest of Coele-Syria, but suppressing the revolt of Achaeus in Asia Minor, and recovering the former provinces of the empire in that See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

Through Arachosia and Drangiane, in the valley of the Etymander (Helmand), he marched to Carmania and Persis (Polyb. xi. 34). Both here and in Babylonia he re-established the imperial authority, and in 205 undertook a voyage from the mouth of the Tigris, through the Arabian gulf to the flourishing See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

See also:

• JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– )
• JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340–420)

17a; S. Jerome on Dan. xi. 40), restored several towns in Babylonia and subdued the Elymaeans. His attempt, however, to See also:

• PLUNDER

Polyb. xxxi. Maccab. i. 6, ii. g; Jos. See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

In 159 Mongolian tribes, whom the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

The names of his predecessors are not known to us. Obviously this period was marked by continual dynastic feuds (cf. Trog. Prol. 42: " ut See also:

• VARIA (mod. Vicovaro)

When Tigranes had submitted, Pompey received him into favour and extended the Roman supremacy over the See also:

• VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

97; and on part of his coins), but in 57 B.C. the " god " was assassinated by his sons Orodes and Mithradates. The Parthian Empire, as founded by the conquests of Mithradates I. and restored, once by Mithradates II. and again by Phraates III., was, to all exterior See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

112; cf. 41). Isidore, indeed, enumerates nineteen; but, of these, Sacastene formed no part of the Parthian Empire, as has been shown by von See also:

• GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, BARON VON (1835-1887)

The period, from the death of Alexander to the See also:

• SASSANID, or SASSANIAN DYNASTY (Or SASANIAN)

In later times the Arabic town Atra in an See also:

• OASIS (Gr. &toss, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian Arabic sod is derived)

Mohammerah), first founded by Alexander on an artificial hill by the junction of the Eulaeus (See also:

• KARUN

East of the Tigris lay the kingdom of Elymais (Elam), to which belonged Susa and its modern representative Ahwaz, farther down on the Eulaeus. The Elymaeans, who had already offered a repeated resistance to the Seleucids, were subdued by Mithradates I., as we have mentioned above; but they remained a separate state, which often rebelled against the Arsacids (Strabo xvi. 744; cf. Plat. Pomp. 36; Tac. See also:

• ANN

In its neighbourhood Strabo mentions " the minor dynasties of the Sagapenians and Silacenians " (xvi. 745). The Uxians, moreover, with the Cossaeans and other mountain tribes, maintained their independence exactly as under the later Achaemenids (Strabo xvi. 744; Plin. vi. 133). 8. The district of Persis, also, became independent soon after the time of Antiochus IV., and was ruled by its own kings, who perpetuated the Achaemenian traditions, and on their coins—which bear the Persian language in Aramaic characters, i.e. the so-called Pahlavi—appear as zealous adherents of Zoroastrianism and the See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

Even in Carmania we find independent kings, one of whom gave his name to a town Vologesocerta (Balashkert). 9. The east of Iran—Bactria with Sogdiana, Eastern Arachosia and Gedrosia—was never subject to the Arsacids. Here the Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Indian kingdoms held their own, till, in 139 B.C., they succumbed before the invading Mongolian and Scythian tribes (see BACTRIA and See also:

• WORKS

See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

123-153). This empire of the Kushana merits special mention here, on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

This fact is the clearest symptom of the inner weakness of character of their empire and of the small power wielded by the the Parthian " king of kings." In contrast alike with its prede-Bmpire. cessors and its successors, the Arsacid dominion was peculiarly a See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

The See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

How vital was the nomadic element in the Parthian Empire is obvious from the fact that, in See also:

• CIVIL

For at the side of the great god Ahuramazda there stands a See also:

• HOST

Crass. 33). In spite of this, however, the rise of the Arsacid Empire marks the beginning of a reaction against Hellenism—not, indeed, a conscious or official reaction, but a reaction which was Reaction all the more effective because it depended on the impetus against of circumstances working with all the power of a natural Hellenism. force. The essential point is that the East is completely divorced from the Mediterranean and the Hellenic world, that it can derive no fresh powers from that quarter, and that, consequently, the influence of the Oriental elements must steadily increase. This process can be most clearly traced on the coins—almost the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

These tendencies taken together explain the See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

It was bound to protect itself Arsacid against Scythian aggression in the East and Bmpire. Roman aggression in the West. To maintain, or regain, the suzerainty over Mesopotamia and the vassal states of that region, as also over Atropatene and Armenia, was its most imperative task. Yet it always remained on the defensive and even so was towards hoped to See also:

• PLAY

The aristocratic See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Pacorus himself fell on the 9th of June 38 B.C. at Gindarus in northern Syria. Antony then attacked the Parthians in 36 B.C., and penetrated through Armenia into Atropatene, but was defeated by Phraates IV.—who in 37 B.C. had murdered his father Orodes I.—and compelled to See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

Consequently in 20 B.C., he restored the See also:

• STANDARDS

In the intervals the Parthians made several attempts to reassert their dominion over Armenia and there install an Arsacid prince ; but on each occasion velgn s1 ~ Vologaeses /. they retreated without giving battle so soon as the Romans prepared for war. Only the dynasty of Atropatene was finally deposed and the country placed under an Arsacid ruler. Actual war with Rome broke out under Vologaeses I. (51-77), who made his brother Tiridates king of Armenia. After protracted hostilities, in which the Roman army was commanded by Cn. Domitius See also:

• CORBULO, GNAEUS DOMITIUS (1st century A.D.)

He was hampered in an energetic campaign against Rome by attacks of the Dahae and Sacae. Hyrcania, also, revolted and asserted its independence under a separate line of kings. A little later, the Alans, a great Iranian tribe in the south of Russia—the ancestors of the present-day Ossets—broke for the first time through the Caucasian passes, and ravaged Media and Armenia—an incursion which they often repeated in the following centuries. On the other side, the reign of Vologaeses I. is characterized by a great advance in the Oriental reaction against Hellenism. The line of Arsacids which came to the throne in the person of Artabanus II. (A.D. ro) stands in open opposition to the old kings with their leanings to Rome and, at least external, tinge of Hellenism. The new regime obviously laid much more stress on the Oriental character of their state, though See also:

• PHILOSTRATUS

But the coins of Vologaeses I. are quite barbarous, and for the first time on some of them appear the See also:

• INITIALS (Lat. initialis, of or belonging to a beginning, initium)

See also:

• NOLDEKE
• NOLDEKE, THEODOR (1836— )

Trajan resuscitated the Traian and old project of Crassus and Caesar, by which the See also:

• MARCUS

After that Greek culture and Greek literature were only accessible to the Orientals in an Aramaic dress. Vologaeses III. is probably also the king Valgash, who, according to a native tradition, preserved in the Dinkart, began a collection of the sacred writings of Zoroaster—the origin of the Avesta which has come down to us. This would show how the national Iranian element in the Parthian Empire was continually gathering strength. The Roman war was closed in 165 by a peace which ceded north-west Mesopotamia to Rome. Similar conflicts took place in 195-202 between Vologaeses IV. (191-209) and Septimius See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

In his days there arose in Persis—precisely as Cyrus had arisen under See also:

• ASTYAGES

The victorious Ardashir then took possession of the palace of Ctesiphon and assumed the title " King of the kings of the Iranians " ((3aatXeus i3aWLXEWV 'Apravwv). The new empire founded by Ardashir I.—the Sassanian, or Neo-Persian Empire—is essentially different from that of his Arsacid predecessors. It is, rather, a continua- sassanian tion of the Achaemenid traditions which were still wars with alive on their native See also:

• SOIL

15; similarly under Shapur II.: Ammian. Marc. xvii. 5, 5). He attacked Armenia, though without permanent success (cf. von Gutschmid in Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. xxxi. 47, on the fabulous Armenian account of these wars), and despatched his armies against Roman Mesopotamia. They strayed as far as Syria and Cappadocia. The inner decay of the Roman Empire, and the widespread tendency of its troops to See also:

• MUTINY
• MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin, a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. emeute; the original is the Late Lat. mota, commotion, from movere, to move)

The Goths defeated See also:

• DECIUS, GAIUS MESSIUS QUINTUS TRAJANUS (2017-251)

It applies, however, to the whole royal house, precisely as in the See also:

• OTTOMAN

This state of affairs had also prevailed under the later Achaemenids, and had materially contributed to the disintegration of the empire and the numerous insurrections of the satraps. But the older Achaemenids held an entirely different position; and hardly a single Sassanid enjoyed even that degree of power which was still retained by the later Achaemenids. It was of fundamental importance .that the Sassanian Empire could not make good its claim to world dominion; and, in spite of the title of its kings, it always remained essentially the kingdom of Iran—or rather west Iran, together with the districts on the Tigris and Euphrates. This fact, again, is most closely connected with its military and administrative organization. The external and internal conditions of the empire are in mutual reaction upon one another. The empire, which in extent did not exceed that of the Arsacids with its vassal states, was protected on the east and west by the great deserts of central Iran and Mesopotamia. For the defence of these provinces the mounted archers, who formed the basis of the army, possessed adequate strength; and though the Scythian nomads from the east, or the Romans from the west, might occasionally penetrate deep into the country, they never succeeded in maintaining their position. But the power of the neo-Persian Empire was not great enough for further conquests, though its army was capable and animated by a far stronger national feeling than that of the Parthians. It still consisted, however, of levies from the See also:

• RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back, retain)

The successes of the Sassanids in the east were gained in the later period of their dominion; and the Roman armies, in spite of decay in discipline and military spirit, still remained their tactical and strategical superiors. A great victory might be won—even an emperor might be captured, like Valerian—but immediately afterwards successes, such as those gained against Shapur I. (who was certainly an able general) by Ballista and Odenathus of Palmyra, or the later victories of See also:

• CARUS, KARL GUSTAV (1789–1869)
• CARUS, MARCUS AURELIUS

635 sqq.), already existed under the Arsacids, e.g. the Suren (Surenas, vide supra, p. 798) and See also:

• KAREN

Side by side with the nobles ranked the spiritual chiefs, now afar more powerful See also:

• BODY

Religions-systems," in the Zeitschr. f. armen. Philol. i. 149 sqq.). The Persian religion, as we have seen, spread more and more widely after the Achaemenian period. In the Indo-Scythian Empire the Persian gods were zealously worshipped; in Armenia the old national religion was almost entirely banished by the Persian cults (Gelzer, " Zur armen. Gotterlehre," in Ber. d. sacks. Gesch. d. Wissensch., 1895) ; in Cappadocia, North Syria and the west of Asia Minor, the Persian gods were everywhere adored side by side with the native deities. It was in the third See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

Zeus or See also:

• JUPITER

Therefore the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

Ges. p. 135, 1895). Shapur I., who appears to have had a broader outlook, added to the religious writings a collection of scientific See also:

• TREATISES

The king even inclined to him, till in a great disputation the Magians gained the predominance. None the less Mani found means to diffuse his creed far and wide over the whole empire. Even the heir to the throne, See also:

• HORMIZD, or HORMIZDAS

In these texts God the Father is identified with the Zervan of Zarathustrism, the See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

In Susiana Shapur I. built the great city of Gondev-Shapur, which succeeded the ancient capital of the Persian Empire. At the same time the See also:

• MOTHER

The fundamental work on Sassanian history is Theodor Ndldeke's Gesch. der Perser u. Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden, aus der arabischen Chronik des See also:

• TABARI [Abu Ja'far Mahommed ibn Jarir ut-Tabari] (838-923)

Ges. d. Wissensch., 1901). For the numismatology the works of A. D. Mordtmann are of See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

For facsimiles of coins the principal work is J. de Bartholomaei, Collection de monnaies sassanides (2nd ed., St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Ardashir I., 226-241. Ardashir II., 379-383. Shapur I., 241-272. Shapur III., 383-388. Hormizd I., 272-273. Bahram IV., 388-399. Bahram I., 273-276. See also:

• YAZDEGERD (" made by God," Izdegerdes)

Yazdegerd II., 438-457. Narseh "(See also:

• NARSES (c. 478—573)
• NARSES, NARSEH, NARSEUS

In the west the old conflict for Osroene and northern Mesopotamia (now Roman provinces), with the fortresses of Edessa, Carrhae and Nisibis, still smouldered. Armenia the Sassanids were all the more eager to regain, since there the Arsacid dynasty still survived and turned for protection to Rome, with whom, in consequence, new wars perpetually broke out. In the reign of Bahram II. (276-293), the emperor Carus, burning to avenge the disaster of Valerian, penetrated into Mesopotamia without See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

But in the following year he sustained a severe reverse in Armenia, in which he lost his war-See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

Shapur II., a See also:

• POSTHUMOUS

See also:

• VAN

337, the year that saw the death of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

He captured Arsaces III. by treachery and compelled him to commit See also:

• SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from cued ere, to kill)

At first the magnates raised his aged brother Ardashir II. to the throne, then in 383 deposed him and enthroned Shapur's son as Shapur III. In 388, however, he was assassinated, Yazdegerdl. as was also his brother, Bahram IV., in 399. But the son of the latter, Yazdegerd I. (399-420), was an energetic and intelligent sovereign, who held the magnates within bounds and severely chastised their attempts at encroachment. He even sought to emancipate himself from the Magian Church, 1 For the succeeding events see also under ROME: Ancient History: and articles on the Roman emperors and Persian kings. put an end to the persecutions, and allowed the Persian Christians (Pahlavi), and declared its contents binding. Defection from Zoroastrianism was punished with death, and therefore also the proselytizing of the Christians, though the Syrian martyrologies prove that the kings frequently ignored these proceedings so long as it was at all possible to do so. Chosroes I. was one of the most illustrious sovereigns of the Sassanian Empire. From him dates a new and equitable See also:

• ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad juxtare, derived from juxta, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from justus, right)

The See also:

• NET

(579-590), who, in spite of repeated negotiations, failed to re-establish peace. Hormizd had not the ability to retain the authority of his father, and he further affronted the Magian priesthood by declining to proceed against the Christians and by requiring that, in his empire, both religions should dwell together in peace. Eventually he succumbed to a See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

The assassination an individual organization. In the Persian tradition he is consequently known as " the sinner." In the end he was probably assassinated. So great was the bitterness against him that the magnates would admit none of his sons to the throne. One of them, however, Bahram V., found an See also:

• AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

Pers. i. 3). WhfeHuns. These Ephthalite attacks harassed and weakened the Sassanids, exactly as the Tocharians had harassed and weakened the Arsacids after Phraates II. Peroz (457–484) fell in battle against them; his treasures and family were captured and the country devastated far and near. His brother Balash (484-488), being unable to repel them, was deposed and blinded, and the crown was bestowed on Kavadh I. (488–531), the son of Peroz. As the external and internal See also:

• DISTRESS

On his return he restored order in the interior. In 502 he attacked the TheMazda-Romans and captured and destroyed Amida (mod. See also:

• KITE

Aauthirvan. of Maurice in 602 impelled him to a war of revenge against Rome, in the course of which his armies—in 6o8 and, again; in 615 and 626—penetrated as far as See also:

• CHALCEDON
• CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF

In the interval—presumably during the reign of See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

By 65o the Arabs had occupied every province to Balkh and the Oxus. Only in the secluded districts of northern Media (Tabaristan), the " generals " of the house of •Karen (Spahpat, Ispehbed) maintained themselves for a century as vassals of the caliphs—exactly as Atropates and his dynasty had done before them. The fall of the empire sealed the fate of its religion. The Moslems officially tolerated the Zoroastrian creed, though occasional persecutions were not lacking. But little by little it vanished from Iran, with the exception of a few remnants (chiefly in the oasis of See also:

• YEZD
• YEZD, or YAZD

Noldeke, Aufsatze zur persischen Geschichte (1887, See also:

• MEDEA (Gr. Mi/Seta)

The success of this policy was, however, only apparent, especially in Iran, the inhabitants of which adopted Islam only in the most superficial manner, and it was from Persia that the See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

Ultimately in the reign of Merwan II.the non-Arabic Moslems found a See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

IJosain Dhu '1-Yamir;ain• (" the man with two right hands ") and others succeeded in deposing and killing him. Tahir ultimately (82o) received the governorship of Khorasan. where he succeeded in establishing a practically independent Moslem dynasty (the Tahirids)* which ruled until about 873 in nominal obedience to Bagdad. From 825 to about 898 a similar dynasty, the Dulafids2 or Dolafids reigned nominally as governors under the caliphs till they were put down by Motadid. In the reign of the caliph Motasim a serious revolt of Persian Mazdakite sectaries (the Khorrami) in alliance with Byzantium was with difficulty suppressed, as also a rising of Tabaristan under an hereditary chief Maziyar who was secretly supported by the Turkish mercenaries (e.g., Af shin) whom the caliph had invited to his court. To another Turk, Itakh, the caliph Wathiq gave a titular authority over all the eastern provinces. In the reign of the tenth caliph Motawakkil the Tahirids fell before Yakub b. Laith al-Saffar, who with the approbation of the caliph founded a dynasty, the Saffarid (q.v.), in Seistan. It is convenient at this point to mention several other minor dynasties founded by nominal governors in various parts of Persia and its borderland. From 879 to about 93o minor the Sajids ruled in Azerbaijan, while in Tabaristan Dynasties. an Alid dynasty (the Zaidites) was independent from 864 to 928, when it fell before the See also:

• SAMANIDS

Mohtadi, the fourteenth Abbasid caliph, endeavoured vainly to replace them by Persians (the Abna). His successor Motamid was attacked by the Saffarid Yakub who however was compelled to flee (see CALIPHATE: § C, § 15). Yakub's brother Amr (reigned 878-900) received the vacant position, but was taken prisoner by See also:

• ISMAIL (1830-1895)

He had successively fought for the Samanids and the Ziyarids,' a dynasty of Jorjan, and his son Imad addaula (ed-dowleh, originally Abu '1 Masan Ali) received from Mardawij of the latter house the governorship of Karaj; his second son Rokn addaula (Abu All See also:

• HASAN

' This 1s denied by S. See also:

• LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM (1801–1876)
• LANE, JAMES HENRY (1814–1866)

His son and successor Mahmud (q.v.) was attacked by a brother, Isma `il, and retired from Khorasan (of which he had been governor). The Samanids then fell under the power of the Tatar Ilkhans, but Mahmud returned, triumphed over both the Samanids and the See also:

• TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

On the death of the last the empire was distracted by civil war between his sons Barkiyaroq, Mahommed and Sinjar, with the result that, although the Seljuks of the See also:

• DIRECT

The See also:

• FOURTH

But with hardly any exceptions they had been the merest puppets, now in the hands of Turkish ministers, now under the protection of practically independent dynasts. The real rulers of Persia during the years 874–1231 were, as we have seen, the Samanids, the Buyids, the Ghaznevids, the Seljuks, the Salgharids and the Khwarizm shahs. We now come to a new period in Persian history, when the numerous . See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

The Persian Empire under Hulagu and his descendants extended from the dominions of Jagatai on the north to that of the Egyptian dynasts on the south, and from the See also:

• BYZANTINE

The See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

Ghazan 2 The dynasty of the Assassins or Isma'ilites was founded in 1090 and extended its rule over much of western Persia and Syria (for the rulers see Stockvis, op. cit. i. 131, and article Assassr'i). was a man of great ability. He established a permanent See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

The prince, under whom a definite peace was made with Malik al-Nasir, the Mameluke ruler of Egypt, had great trouble with poweriul viziers and generals which he accentuated by his passion for Bagdad-Khatun, wife of the amir IJosain and daughter of the amir Chupan. This See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

Hosain fought with the Mozaffarids of Shiraz and the Black See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

His son Mobariz ud-din Mahommed, who followed him in 1313, became governor in Fars under Abu Sa'id, in Kerman in 1340, and subsequently made himself independent at Fars and Shiraz (1353) and in Isfahan (1356). In 1357 he was deposed and blinded, and though restored was exiled again and died in 1364. His descendants, except for Jelal ed-din (Jalaluddin) Shah Shuja', the patron of the poet See also:

• HAFIZ

He passed from one victory to another, but the conquered districts were never really settled under his administration. Fresh risings of the defeated dynasties followed each new enterprise, and he had also to deal with the Mongol hordes whose territory marched with northern Persia. His descendants were for a brief period the overlords of Persia, but after Shah Rukh (reigned 1409-1446) and Ala addaula (1447), the so-called Timurid dynasty ceased to have any authority over Persia. There were Timurid governors of Fars under Shah Rukh, Pir Mahommed (14o5-14o9), Iskendar (1409-1414), Ibrahim (1415-1434) and Abdallah (1434); in other parts of Persia many of the Timurid family held governor-See also:

• SHIPS

It may be said that from north to south, or from See also:

• ASTARABAD

H. See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Sultan Ahmad, eldest son of Abu Sa'id, reigned in Bokhara; his brother, Ornar See also:

• SHEIKH, or SHAIKH

The narratives of Caterino See also:

• ZENO

This prince, who had slain an elder brother, died by See also:

• POISON

At last a youth named Alamut, aged fourteen years, was raised to the throne, which he held till the succession of Sheikh Isma'il." Who this young man was is not specified; but other writers call Alamut and his brother See also:

• MURAD, or AMURATH

So great was the influence of Sheikh Haidar, and so earnestly did he carry out the principles of conduct which had characterized his family for five generations, that his name has become, as it were, inseparable from the dynasty of his son Isma'il; and the term " Haidari " (leonine) is applied by many persons to indicate generally the Safawids of Persia. The outcome of his teaching was a division of Mahommedanism vitally momentous to the world of Islam. The Persian mind was peculiarly adapted to receive the form of religion prepared for it by the philosophers of Ardebil. The doctrines presented were dreamy and mystic; they rejected the See also:

• INFALLIBILITY (Fr. infaillibilite and infallibilite, the latter now obsolete, Med. Lat. infallibilitas, infallibilis, formed from faller, to make a mistake)

The life of the young Sufi from this period to his assumption of royalty in 1499 was full of stirring See also:

• ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to happen)

This last account is extremely probable, and would show that the young Turkoman had wished to make one grand effort to save Isfahan and Shiraz (with See also:

• KAZVIN

Shaibani was defeated and fled, but was overtaken in his flight, and put to the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

2 Knolles, Malcolm, See also:

• CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD (1812-1878)

Many disdained to wear armour when they fought under Ismail; and so enthusiastic were his soldiers in their new faith that they used to bare their breasts to their enemies and court death, exclaiming ` Shiah! Shiah! ' to mark the holy cause for which they fought." Shah Tahniasp,6 the eldest of the four sons of Ismail, succeeded to the throne on the death of his father:? The principal occurrences in his reign, placed as nearly as possible in shah See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

(London, 191o).—ED. 6 Malcolm says 1523, Krusinski 1525; Angiolello heard of his death at Cairo in August 1524. Krusinski adds that he was forty-five years of age. Angiolello calls him " Shiacthemes." As an instance of the absurd transliterating current in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )