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QUEENSLAND
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QUEENSLAND , a See also: state of the Australian See also:commonwealth, occupying the whole of the See also:north-eastern portion of the Australian See also:continent, and comprising also the islands in Torres Strait. (For See also:map, see See also:AUSTRALIA.) It lies between 1o° and 29° S., and is bounded on the N. by Torres Strait and the Gulf of See also:Carpentaria, on the W. by See also:South Australia and the See also:Northern Territory, on the S. by New South See also:Wales and on the E. by the Pacific Ocean. It has an See also:area of 668,497 sq. m., a See also:coast-See also:line of 3000, is 1250 M. See also:long and 950 M. wide at its widest See also:part. With so extensive a seaboard Queensland is well favoured with ports on the Pacific See also:side. Moreton See also:Bay receives the See also:Brisbane See also:river, on whose See also:banks Brisbane, the See also:capital, stands. See also:Maryborough See also:port is on the See also:Mary, which flows into Wide Bay; See also:Bundaberg, on the See also:Burnett; See also:Gladstone, on Port See also:Curtis; See also:Rockhampton, up the See also:Fitzroy (See also:Keppel Bay); See also:Mackay, on the See also:Pioneer; See also:Bowen, on Port See also:Denison; See also:Townsville, on See also:Cleveland Bay. See also:Cairns and Port See also:Douglas are near Trinity Bay; Card-well is on See also:Rockingham Bay; See also:Cooktown, on the Endeavour; See also:Thursday See also:Island port, near Cape See also:York; and See also:Normanton and Burketown near the Gulf of Carpentaria. The quiet Inner Passage, between the See also:shore of the See also:Great Barrier See also:Reef, 1200 M. long, favours the north-eastern Queensland ports. Brisbane was founded in 1826, but colonization was restricted until 1842, when the Moreton Bay See also:district of New South Wales was thrown open to settlers. It was named " Queensland " on its separation from the See also:mother See also:colony in 1859. A broad See also:plateau, from 2000 to 5000 ft. in height, extends from north to south, at from 20 to 100 M. from the coast, forming the See also:Main Range. The Coast Range is less elevated.A plateau goes westward from the Great Dividing Range, throwing most of its See also: waters northward to the gulf. The Main Range sends numerous but See also:short streams to the Pacific, and a few long ones south-westward, lost in See also:earth or shallow lakes, unless feeding the river See also:Darling. Going northward, the leading See also:rivers, in See also:order, are the See also:Logan, Brisbane, Mary, Burnett, Fitzroy, Burdekin, See also:Herbert, See also:Johnstone and Endeavour. The Fitzroy receives the See also:Mackenzie and See also:Dawson; the Burdekin is supplied by the Cape, Belyando and Suttor. The See also:chief gulf streams are the See also:Mitchell, See also:Flinders, Leichhardt and See also:Albert. The great dry western plains have the Barcoo, See also:Diamantina, Georgina, Warrego, Maranoa and Condamine. (T. A. C.) See also:Geology.—Queensland consists geologically of three areas. The eastern See also:division of the state, including all the Cape York See also:Peninsula and the mountainous areas behind the coast, is occupied by the Queensland See also:Highlands, which are built up of a .See also:foundation of Archean and contorted See also:Lower Palaeozoic rocks, upon which See also:rest some sheets of comparatively See also:horizontal Upper Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks. The rocks of the Highlands sink to the See also:west below the Western Plains, which consist in the main of a See also:sheet of Cretaceous See also:clays, capped by isolated ridges and peaks of See also:Desert See also:Sandstone. In the far west the plains end against the See also:foot of an Archean tableland, which is the north-eastern See also:projection of the Western Plateau of Australia.The See also: oldest rocks in Queensland are gneisses and See also:schists, which regarded as metamorphosed See also:Silurian rocks, which had been converted into See also:gneiss, See also:mica-schists and See also:hornblende-schists. Their Silurian See also:age was affirmed owing to their lithological resemblance to rocks in See also:Victoria, which were then regarded as Silurian, but have since been shown to be Archean. The gneisses and schists occupy the Barklay Tableland, the Cloncurry See also:Goldfield and the rocks of the Mackinlay district in the west of the state. The second chief Archean area is around Charters Towers and the Cape Goldfieid; it includes quartzites, conglomerates and slates, striking from north-west to south-See also:east. The third Archean area occupies the See also:
The Middle Devonian limestones occur on the See also: Marble and See also:Hunter Islands in the See also:Northumberland See also:Archipelago. The Devonian rocks in the Pentland and Gilbert district are estimated by See also:Jack to be over 20,000 ft. in thickness; but they probably include some Lower Palaeozoic beds. The Queensland Carboniferous See also:system is divided into five series—the See also:Gympie, See also:Star and the three divisions of the Bowen beds. The lowest series is the Gympie, which occurs between Brisbane and Maryborough. It consists of shales and sandstones, and is traversed by dikes of diorite, which often contain See also:pyrites and See also:gold. The age of these gold-bearing rocks is proved by the presence of such fossils as Productus cora and Protoretepora ampla. The Gympie series is well developed in the districts of Burnett, Broad See also:Sound Bay and Wide Bay, along the coast from Port Curtis to the south of Cape See also:Palmerston. The Gympie beds are greatly contorted; and those of the Star series are regarded as younger, because they are less disturbed. They are best known in the basins of the Great and Little Star rivers, tributaries of the Upper Burdekin. They are best developed on the Belyando river and in the See also:Drummond Range, where the shales and sandstones yield abundant fossil See also:fish; on the Star river the shales contain Lepidodendron. The Bowen beds are divided into three series which represent the upper part of the Carboniferous. The Lower Bowen series consists of agglomerates and altered rocks exposed in the See also:Toussaint Range; farther south, the Lower Bowen beds consist of grits, sandstones and shales, which have been altered by some granitic intrusions.The Middle Bowen series contains beds with Productus See also: coca and Glossopteris. The Upper Bowen beds contain See also:coal seams, abundant remains of Glossopteris and one marine See also:band. They See also:form the centre of the See also:basin of the Bowen coalfield; while the Middle Bowen beds outcrop in a band around it. The Upper Bowen beds occur also at Townsville and Cooktown in Northern Queensland. The rocks of the Mesozoic See also:group may be divided into two divisions, of which the lower includes terrestrial deposits containing coal seams; the upper is mainly a marine formation, but it terminates with a further development of terrestrial deposits. The Lower Mesozoic division includes the Burrum and See also:Ipswich series. The Burrum series occurs along the eastern coast from See also:Laguna Bay, through Wide Bay and Maryborough, to See also:Blackwater See also:Creek; and it extends inland for about 30 m., where it is faulted against the Gympie beds. The western edge of the Burrum beds are de-scribed as highly altered in places, by contact with granites. The Ipswich series occupies 12,000 sq. m. in the south-eastern corner of Queensland, and is the northern continuation of the Upper See also:Clarence series of New South Wales. It contains coal seams which have been worked, though the coal is of inferior value to that of the Carboniferous of New South Wales. One seam, on Stewarts Creek, near Rockhampton, is 26 ft. thick. Interbedded basalts occur in the Ipswich beds, forming the scarp of the See also:Toowoomba Range.The Burrum and Ipswich beds have been included in the Trias and the See also: Jurassic, or in both systems as the Trias-See also:Jura, but according to A. C. See also:Seward their characteristic fossil, Taeniopteris daintreei, is of Lower Oolitic age. The Cretaceous system is represented by a lower group of marine clays forming the See also:Rolling Downs formation. They are said to rest conformably upon the Ipswich beds, and some of the fossils found in these beds were first described as Upper Oolitic. The See also:affinities of the fauna are in part with Lower Cretaceous and in part with the Cenomanian; so both these series may be represented. The Rolling Downs formation consists in the main of clays, forming the Impermeable See also:cover over the subterranean stores of See also:water, which maintain the flowing See also:wells of central Australia. The Rolling Downs formation underlies the whole of the Western Plains of Queensland, from the foot of the Queensland Highlands, westward to the Barklay Tableland; and it extends from the Gulf of Carpentaria on the north, across the state into South Australia and New South Wales. The Desert Sandstone overlies the Rolling Downs formation. Its age is shown to be Upper Cretaceous by some marine fossils from Maryborough and Croydon, which are said to be from rocks inter-bedded in it. In the interior, the Desert Sandstone is entirely of terrestrial and lacustrine origin, and the only fossils are obscure plant remains and the silicified trunks of trees. Glossopteris has been collected on Betts Creek from a See also:rock identified as Desert See also:Sand-See also:
If it had survived into the Cretaceous, some specimens of it would doubtless have been obtained from the coal seams of the Lower Mesozoic. The Desert Sandstone once covered nearly three-quarters of Queensland, having a wider range than the Rolling Downs formation. It was formed partly on See also: land, partly in fresh-water lakes and partly in arms:of the See also:sea, as at Croydon and Mary-See also:borough. There is no trace of volcanic rocks in this See also:period, and the vitreous See also:surface of the Desert Sandstone is due to the deposition of efflorescent chert. The Desert Sandstone formation has now been weathered into isolated plateaus and See also:tent-shaped hills. The See also:Cainozoic group includes many volcanic rocks, mainly sheets of See also:basalt, as at Townsville and Hughenden. Near Herberton, between the See also:head of the Burdekin and the Einasleigh River, the basalts occupy 2000 sq. m. of See also:country. Their age appears to be Oligocene, as they probably correspond with the oldest Cainozoic basalts of Victoria. Volcanic rocks of a later period occur north of Cooktown, and in the Einasleigh River, where the eruptive centres are recognizable; and a series of hot springs, some of which are described as geysers, represent the last See also:stage of volcanic activity. The most important Cainozoic sedimentary rocks are the See also:bone breccias, made up of bones of See also:extinct marsupials, such as Diprotodon, Thylacoleo and See also:giant Kangaroos. They appear to have been bogged in the mud by drying water holes, during droughts. The bones also occur in beds of See also:gravel and sand, and they have been found in places covered by 188 ft. of overlying deposits.Caves occur in the limestones, and on their floors there are beds yielding bones of marsupials and extinct birds; but no well authenticated See also: case of the See also:ancient remains of See also:man has yet been established. The chief See also:mineral product of Queensland is gold, found in See also:veins in Archean, Palaeozoic and Lower Mesozoic rocks. The most famous gold mines are Mount See also:Morgan, now changing into a See also:copper mine, Charters Towers and Gympie. See also:Tin is found in the See also:fields of Herberton, Cooktown and Stannary Hills. Copper occurs near Herberton, Chillagoe and Mungana, coal in See also:southern Queensland in the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Mesozoic deposits. A full See also:account of the geology of Queensland up to 1892 is given in Jack and Etheridge's Geology of Queensland. The tectonic geology of the coast-line has been described by E. C. See also:Andrews, and the See also:general geology is described in the numerous valuable publications of the See also:Geological Survey of Queensland. A See also:summary of the mineral resources was issued by the Queensland See also:government in 1901. See also:Information regarding the artesian water See also:supply is given in the See also:Annual Reports of the Queensland See also:Hydraulic Engineer. (J.W. G.) See also: Flora.—The Queensland flora comprehends most of the forms See also:peculiar to Australia, with the addition of about five See also:hundred See also:species belonging to the See also:Indian and Malayan regions. There are no See also:mountain ranges of sufficient See also:altitude to make any appreciable See also:change in the plant-See also:life. See also:Bellenden See also:Ker, the highest mountain in tropical Australia, has a height of only 5200 ft., and the See also:plants growing upon its See also:summit, as well as on the highest parts of the neighbouring mountains, are for the most part similar to those on the See also:low lands in the southern parts of the state, and the plants which may be considered as peculiar to these heights are few in number of species. They consist of a Leptospermum and a (?) Myrtus, which attain a height of about 30 or 40 ft., and have widespreading, densely leaved heads. The most attractive of the tall shrubs are Dracophyllum Sayeri, of which there are two forms, See also:Rhododendron Lochae and Orites fragrans. A few See also:orchids of small growth are met with, but the only large species known to inhabit these localities is the normal form of Dendrobium speciosum. These high spots have a few ferns peculiar to them, and of others it is the only known Australian See also:habitat; for instance, the See also:pretty See also:
These are mostly trees of large See also: size. Other large trees of the order which supply hard, durable See also:timber are the broad-leaved See also:tea-tree (Melaleuca leucadendron and others), " Swamp See also:Mahogany " (Tristania suaveolens), " Brisbane Box " (T. conferta), " See also:Turpentine " (Syncarpid laurifolia), " Peebeen " (S. Hillii), " See also:Penda " (Xanthostemon oppositifolius). These are most generally cut at sawmills. Other orders, however, furnish equally serviceable, large-sized timber, particularly the following:—" Sour See also:Plum " (Owenia See also:venosa, Meliaceae), " Red See also:Cedar " (Cedrela Toona), " See also:Crow's Ash" (Flindersia australis, Meliaceae), " Burdekin Plum " (Pleiogynium Solandri, Anacardiaceae) ; " See also:Bean-tree " (Castanospermum australe, See also:Leguminosae), " Johnstone River See also:Teak " (Afzelia australis, Leguminosae), " Ringy See also:Rosewood " (See also:Acacia glaucescens, Leguminosae), " See also:Black See also:Walnut " (Cryptocarya Palmerstoni, Laurineae), " See also:
With regard to See also: fodder-plants, no country is better furnished; there are many herbs and a large number of See also:salt bushes and other shrubs, which form excellent auxiliaries to the See also:food supply for stock. It is, however, to the See also:grasses that the excellence of the pastures is mainly due. On the extensive plains where the best species abound may be seen a large number of the genus Panicum, of which the following are looked upon with the greatest favour:—" Vandyke grass," a form of P. flavidum, " See also:Cockatoo grass " (P. semialatum), on the roots of which a species of cockatoo, in some parts of North Queensland, feeds; " See also:Barley grass" (P. decompositum and P. distachyum) ; " See also:Blue grass " (Andropogon sericeus, A. pertusus, A. ref ractus, and A. erianthoides) ; " See also:Russell River grass " (Paspalum vlmarra, nearly allied to the South See also:American species P. paniculatum, minutiflorum, and P. brevifolium, Agropyrum scabrum) ; " Tall See also:Oat grass " (Anthistiria avenacea) ; " Landsborough grass " (Anthistiria membranacea) • Danthonia racemosa, D. pilosa, D. pallida, and D. semiannularis; Sporobolus Benthami, an excellent species found near the Diamantina and Georgina rivers, and S. actinocladus; Stipa aristiglumis, Leptochloa chinensis, Microlaena stipoides; " See also:Early See also:spring grass " (Eriochloa punctata), with the following " Love grasses": —Eragrostis Brownie, E. chaetophylla, E. pilosa and E. lenella. The " Mitchell grasses " (Astrebla pectinate) and its varieties, viz. the See also:Wheat (traticoides), the weeping (elymoides) and the See also:curly (curvifolia), are those that have the most extra-See also:ordinary vitality, but some stockholders consider that the "See also:Sugar grass " or " See also:
One Fig (Ficus gracilipes) produces a fruit used for jam and jelly. Two Garcinias are recorded as indigenous, but of one only (G. Mestoni) is the fruit known. It is of a depressed globular form, sometimes 3 in. in diameter, very juicy, and of a pleasant flavour. Leptomeria acida, one of the very early fruits used by Australian colonists, is met with in some localities. The "Finger See also:
Of ferns, one-See also: half of the kinds met with in Australia are found in Queensland as well as in the other states, one-See also:fourth in Queensland alone, the remaining fourth belonging to the other states, but not to Queensland. The indigenous ferns equal in number those of New See also:Zealand, and are three times the number of those of Great See also:Britain. Fauna.—The land fauna of Queensland is essentially one with that of the entire continent. But the See also:geographical position of the state, which exposes it to the See also:climatic and transporting influences of the intertropical Pacific, has to a notable extent impressed on its fauna characters of its own. It has thus been made the headquarters of Australian See also:bird-life on land and fish-life at sea, the moisture of its coastal regions and the warmth of its tidal waters being eminently favourable to that See also:wealth of See also:insect and other low types of life which determines the multiplication of the higher. The quadrupeds of Queensland are of the ordinary Australian type already described. Of the predominant class, the marsupials, one of the most interesting forms is the Tree-See also:Kangaroo (Dendrolagus), as, apart from the See also:habit of climbing trees, which is shared to some extent by the Rock-Wallabies, they afford a See also:proof of the one-See also:time continuity of the fauna with that of the islands to the north, when land communication still existed between the two areas. Of these curious animals, two species at least are known. As to the rest of the marsupials, there is of course a general resemblance to those of the continent as a whole, but this is accompanied by much See also:evolution of forms, especially among the smaller sorts, recognized by See also:differences which are occasionally sufficient to See also:mark off distinct generic, or even more differentiated See also:groups. The larger Kangaroos are pretty conservative in See also:character every-where, while the See also:common Wallabies, the Rock-Wallabies and the Kangaroo-Rats exhibit a greater tendency to differ from their southern and western kindred. The See also:Koala, or native Bear, is almost absolutely invariable, a sign of the antiquity of the See also:race. The Opossums and the so-called Flying-Opossums are not many in species, and are dwarfed descendants from a more flourishing ancestry.The See also: Bandicoot See also:family (Peramelidae) is fairly represented; it includes the See also:rabbit-bandicoot, which crosses in its eastern range the western border of the country. Carnivorous marsupials of destructive See also:powers are few; the largest of them, the spotted-tailed native See also:cat (Dasyurus maculatus), is the most troublesome. See also:Superior in size to the domestic cat, this pretender to the See also:rank of cat is able to devastate a whole See also:hen-roost in a single See also:night, and is even said by the aboriginals to attack their infants. With the exception of a smaller species of the same See also:kind, and a See also:brush-tailed ally very much smaller, but yet able to kill a See also:fowl with a single bite, the rest (marsupial mice) are but partly carnivorous, chiefly insectivorous, and therefore useful. This fauna is now fortunately deprived of the Thylacinus (Native See also:Tiger) and Sarcophilus (Native See also:Devil), which have been driven by See also:physical changes southwards to See also:Tasmania, and, it was thought until lately, of the Wombats, but a new species of these inoffensive burrowers has recently been discovered within the southern See also:borders of the state. One other peculiarity in the form of a marsupial mammal is the little See also:Musk-See also:Rat (Hypsiprymnus), inhabiting those northern scrubs which are so prolific in other See also:animal forms See also:foreign to the rest of Australia, and seem to have received some of their denizens from the See also:Malay Archipelago and some from the Papuan Islands. The remarkable deposits of fossil bones, extending -in patches throughout the length of the country, are sufficient proof that in former times a much larger number of animals were supported by it than are now to be found within its borders. Queensland has only one native carnivorous beast, the See also:dingo, not a marsupial. Rats and mice of native origin are in considerable variety; among them are the See also:Jumping Rats (Hapolotis), See also:Jerboa-like little animals, which are seldom seen. The bats are of several species; the most notorious of them are the great fruit-bats, or flying-foxes, which the fruit grower could well enough spare. The Sirenian mammal, the See also:dugong, haunts nearly the whole of the coast-line. The See also:Echidna, a See also:porcupine See also:ant-eater, and the playtpus are met with in the south.Batrachians are limited to the frogs and their nearest See also: allies—that is, to the tailless division of the order, the tailed batrachians (newts, &c.) being, as far as is known at See also:present, entirely absent. The greater part of the frogs are arboreal in habit, the most See also:familiar being the large See also:Green Tree See also:Frog. The exuberance and diversity of their food have doubtless been the cause of their differentiation into many distinct species, whichenables them to See also:play a very useful part in checking the undue increase of noxious See also:insects. See also:Snakes, on the other See also:hand, are in too great variety for human interests, as they live very largely on,insects feeders. The great See also:majority belong to the venomous Colubridae, but fortunately the kinds of which the bite is more or. less deadly are not numerous, and snake-bite is one of the rarest causes of See also:death. Those with the worst reputation are the Black Snake and the Orange-bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis), the Brown Snake (Diemansia), the Keeled Snake (Tropidechis), and the Death See also:Adder (Acanthopis). The See also:principal non-venomous species are the -Pythons or constricting snakes, e.g. the common See also:Carpet Snake (See also:Morelia), the long lithe Tree Snake (Dendrophis) and the Fresh-water Snake (Tropidonotus). The Black-headed Rock Snake. (Aspidiotes), one of the Pythons, is said to reach the length of from 20 to 25 ft., but to be perfectly inoffensive. Several kinds of marine snakes occur on the coasts, and all are to be accounted dangerous. Of See also:reptiles, the most numerous group by far is that of the lizards, which have among them representatives of each of the leading families of the class except the Chameleons. Tortoises are exemplified by many forms in the fresh waters; on the coasts by the See also:leather-back, the edible turtle and the See also:tortoise-See also:shell turtle.Queensland waters are not at present infested by any species of See also: alligator, though in times past one of large size was a See also:scourge on the borders of the then inland sea. The crocodilian of its coasts is the, See also:crocodile of the Indian Seas, which ranges over the whole of the western tropical Pacific, and wanders south into Queensland waters as,far;as Keppel Bay. In the fresh-water pools of the northern tableland is found a small and harmless crocodile (Philas) of a very uncommon form. The avifauna is to the naturalist exceedingly attractive, for it is full of surprises and interesting lines of See also:research, while to the artist it is a storehouse of form and See also:colour. Where flowering and See also:honey-yielding trees prevail, a profusion of birds seek their food either on the insects attracted by the honey, or, if so fitted, on the honey itself. Accordingly, the most striking feature of the bird-life, amid the forests of eucalypts and acacias, is its richness in honey-eaters and insect destroyers. The former, however, taken as a whole, are not a natural group, but include a family of perching birds and a portion of the parroquet family, both furnished with brush See also:tongues adapted to the extraction of honey. A second characteristic is the great development of that See also:quaint See also:company, the See also:bower birds, among them the See also:regent bird, satin bird, cat birds, &c., constructors of the elaborate playgrounds which have excited so much See also:attention. A third i,s the presence in one small part of the territory of a See also:cassowary, and on its seaboard of three kinds of See also:rifle birds, both extensions southwards of the tropical families of cassowaries and See also:paradise birds. In the same region of prolific vegetation -the handsome fruit-pigeons are also outliers of a large family of such pigeons spread through the Papuan jungles. There is one species of See also:lyre-bird found in the southern highlands; the giant See also:kingfisher, a laughin jackass, is found in the same region. The Scrub-See also:turkey (Catheturus) heaps its See also:mound of rotting debris to ferment in the shade of the jungles and give warmth to its eggs; the Scrub-hen (Megapodius) piles up sand on the See also:beach for the See also:sun to furnish the necessary temperature.The See also: comparative paucity of birds of See also:prey (Falconidae), and the almost See also:total See also:absence of rasorial See also:game- and poultry-birds, may be noted. Birds pursued for See also:sport or profit, however, are not wanting. The Emu and the See also:Bustard or See also:Plain Turkey afford sport in the open country, See also:Quail and See also:Snipe in or near the timber, while rivers and lakes still unvisited by the See also:gun are covered with Ducks and Geese, Swans and Pelicans. It has been said that Australia has no migratory birds: this is an See also:error, founded upon an undue restriction of the See also:term migratory. Several species could be mentioned which are truly migratory in Queensland, as the Drongo-See also:shrike, See also:Bee-eater, See also:Dollar-bird, &c. On the land surface, among' its lowly organized products, See also:interest centres in the multitudinous formsof insect-life, of which,excepting the Butterflies and Moths (See also:Lepidoptera) and Beetles (See also:Coleoptera), comparatively little is known at present. Insects inimical to man, with the exception, in some localities, of ants, flies and mosquitoes, are inconsiderable in number, and possess few hurtful properties. Centipedes, scorpions and leeches are less troublesome than in most other tropical regions. See also:Spiders present themselves in astonishing variety, but only one kind, a small black spider with red spots (Lathrodectus), is See also:malignant. Among the larger insects proper, the great-winged Phasmas, the See also:Skeleton or Stick-insects, the Leaf-insects, and the splendid See also:Swallow-tailed Butterflies are especially notable. Many of the Beetles are remarkable for size or brilliancy of colour. Fishes and See also:Fisheries.—The class fishes is extraordinarily profuse in diversified forms, the See also:coral reefs being the grazing- and See also:hunting grounds of hosts of gorgeously decorated fish, chiefly of the See also:Wrasse family; these, however, are almost equalled in beauty by the Chaetodons, Gurnards, &c., of other habitats.Among the Perches are the enormous Groper, which may attain the weight of 4 cwt.,' the See also:
The shells are procured by diving, and fetch from £120 to £200 a ton. Mother-of-pearl and tortoise-shell constitute important exports of the colony, capable of great expansion. Oysters are as See also: fine flavoured as they are abundant. Turtles are caught to the northward. Of the fish which frequent the coast, one of the best known varieties is the sea See also:mullet (Mugilidae), large shoals of which strike the Australian coast See also:loo m. south of See also:Sydney, and travel northwards, arriving on the southern coast-line of Queensland in the months of See also:April and May, See also:crossing bars and ascending rivers on the See also:appearance of south-easterly See also:weather. These magnificent fish often attain a weight of from io lb to 12 lb. Small See also:schools of See also:bream succeed the mullet, and are followed in See also:September and See also:October by the poombah or tailor-fish, a fish of exceptional flavour, and much esteemed by epicures. These are succeeded by jewfish, specimens of which caught in southern waters have been known to exceed a weight of 50 lb, See also:whiting, garfish and See also:flatheads, while flounders, black and See also:tongue soles are occasionally caught by See also:seine or hauling nets. White and black trevally,- groper and rock cod, and a variety of bonito identical with the See also:tunny of the Mediterranean Sea are also frequently met with. Several species of the tassel fish (Polynemus macrocohoir), from which See also:isinglass is procured, have been taken by fishermen. See also:
Sardines, See also: whitebait and sprats make their appearance in large shoals on the coast at intervals. The barramundi (Osteoglossum leichardti), which occurs in the Dawson and western waters, is found also on the east coast, and is one of the most esteemed fresh-water fish in Queensland. Dugong, which formerly were found in herds along the northern coast and as far south as Moreton Bay, are caught in set nets of 36 in. mesh, 100 fathoms in length. Different varieties of turtle are plentiful, the green edible turtle being caught by large set nets, and preserved and tinned for export. In Torres Strait and the northern coast the hawksbill turtle, yielding the valuable tortoise-shell of See also:commerce, is said to be captured in a peculiar manner, the sucking-fish or remora (Echeneis naucrates) being utilized by the islanders for that purpose. The remora is carried alive in the bottom of the See also:canoe, a long thin line being attached to the fish's tail and another usually to the gill. On a turtle being sighted and approached to within the length of the line, the sucking-fish is thrown towards it, and immediately it swims to and attaches itself by its singular head sucker to the under surface of the turtle, which if of moderate size is easily pulled into the canoe. Amongst the See also:crustacea may be enumerated the gigantic clams which are found on the reefs of the Inner Route. Occasionally some are met with weighing nearly half a ton, embedded in coral. Fresh-water clams are found in the rivers in the northern districts. The edible See also:oyster (Ostrea graminifora) has been largely cultivated in southern Queensland. Amongst other crustacea, the squat See also:lobster (Themes orientalis) is, with giant prawns and quampi, or small See also:golden-lipped pearl shell, obtained by See also:trawling in the southern waters.Many varieties of crabs are also found on reefs and fore-shores at low See also: tide; prawns and shrimps are caught, dried, and form an See also:article for export to China; mussels, pinna or See also:razor-shell cockles, and eugaries (a species of small shell-fish) are also abundant. See also:Climate.—As one-half of Queensland lies within the tropics the climate is naturally warm, though the temperature has a daily range less than that of other countries under the same isothermal lines. This circumstance is due to the sea breezes, which See also:blow with great regularity. The hot winds which prevail during the summer in some of the other states are unknown in Queensland. Of course, in a territory of such large extent there are many varieties of climate, and the See also:heat is greater along the coast than on the elevated lands of the interior. In the northern parts of the state the high temperature is trying to persons of European descent. The mean temperature at Brisbane during See also:December, See also:January and See also:February is about 76°, while during See also:June, See also:July and See also:August it averages about 60°. In towns farther north, however, the See also:average is higher. See also:Winter in Rockhampton, for instance, averages nearly 65°, while the summer average rises almost to 85°. At Townsville and Normanton the average is higher still. The average rainfall is high, especially along the northern coast, where it ranges from 6o to 7o in. per annum. At Brisbane 5o•o1 in. is the average of 35 years, andeven on the plains of the interior from 20 to 30 in. usually fall every See also:year.West of the coast range the See also: air is dry and hot, and in summer the thermometer rises frequently to 106° in the shade. The monsoons play an important part in cooling the See also:atmosphere near the coast, and are very See also:regular in the north. The winter climate is perfection, especially in the north, but frosts are frequent and regular west of the coast range. See also:Ice is commonly seen at Herberton, 17° S., during winter, and on the Darling Downs frosts are of nightly occurrence. Population.—The population of Queensland in 1905 was estimated at 528,048—290,206 See also:males and 237,842 See also:females, the See also:density of population per sq. m. being about 0.79. In 1861, that is, two years after the separation from New South Wales, the population of the colony stood at 34,400; in 1871 it had reached 125,100; in 1881, 227,000; in 1891, 410,300, and at the See also:census of 1901, 498,129. The policy of assisted See also:immigration contributed greatly to Queensland's progress, and See also:people of foreign descent are proportionately more numerous than in any of the other states, though they only amount to 8.71% of the total population. At the census of 1901 there were 13,166 Germans, 3161 Danes, 2142 Scandinavians, and among coloured aliens 8587 See also:Chinese, 2269 See also:Japanese, 939 Hindoos and Cingalese, 9327 Pacific Islanders, and 1787 other races, making a total of 22,909 coloured aliens. It is estimated that the total aboriginal population of Queensland is about 25,000. The births in 1905 were 13,626, of which 950 were illegitimate, and the deaths 5503, the respective rates per thousand of the population being 25.92 and 10.47. The decline in the See also:birth See also:rate will be gathered from the following table: Period. Birth Rate per loon Period.Birth Rate per loon of Population. of Population. 1861-65 . 43.07 1886-90 . 38.81 1866-7o . 43.91 1891-95 • 35.15 1871-75 . 40.81 1896-1900 . 30.40 I876-8o . 36.72 1901-05 . 26.6o 1881-85 . 36.37 The death rate shows a remarkable diminution: in 1861-65 it averaged 21.06 per 1000; in 1871-75, 17.94; in 1881-85, 19.10; and in 1891-95, 12.82. The See also: marriage rate in 1905 was 6.04 per woo, being an increase on the figures for 1904 of 95. The chief cities and towns, with their population in 1905, are:—Brisbane, 128,000; Rockhampton, 15,461 ; Gympie, 13,200; Maryborough, 12,000; Townsville, 10,950; Toowoomba, 10,700; Ipswich, 8637; Mount Morgan, 8836; Charters Towers, 6000; Bundaberg, 5000.See also: Administration.—As one of the Commonwealth states Queensland returns six senators and nine representatives to the federal See also:parliament. The state parliament consists of a legislative See also:council of 37 members nominated for life, and a legislative See also:assembly of 72 members, who each receive £300 per annum for their services. For purposes of See also:local government the state in 1905 was divided into 46 municipalities and 125 shires. The boroughs See also:control 354 sq. m. and the shires 667,898 sq. m.; the See also:revenue and See also:expenditure of the former in 1905 being respectively £312,510 and £321,645, and of the latter £190,837 and £180,457. Revenue is mainly derived from rates levied on the capital value of assessed properties, which amounted for the whole state to £42,358,173, representing an annual value of £2,647,400. All improvements are exempt from See also:assessment, and much of the revenue is expended in road-making and the building of See also:bridges. Rates are supplemented by an endowment from the central government. See also:Education.—Public education is See also:free, unsectarian and compulsory. State or provisional schools are formed wherever an average attendance of twelve See also:children can be got. Theoretically the school age is from six to twelve years, but in practice compulsory attendance is seldom if ever enforced in certain parts, owing mainly to the difficulty of providing suitable schools within reasonable See also:access. In 1905 there were 1044 state schools, with 2382 teachers and 88,903 scholars. Of private schools the number in 1905 was 171, with 739 teachers and 14,891 pupils.Exclusive of coloured aliens almost the whole adult population can read and write. In 1905 the sum spent on education was £281,575. Ten See also: grammar schools are endowed by the state. By a system of competitive scholarships the government gives free education in grammar schools to scholars in state schools, and also three-yearly exhibitions to See also:universities to students who pass an examination of a high See also:standard. State aid is also rendered to schools of See also:art, schools of See also:design, free See also:libraries and technical schools. There is no state See also:
3d. per inhabitant; the bulk of this sum, £23,567,554, having been expended on railways. The following shows the growth of the public indebtedness: Year. Total Debt. Debt per Inhabitant. 1861 £70,000 £2 0 9 1871 4,047,850 32 6 II 1881 . 13,245,150 58 7 2 1891 • 29,457,134 73 12 5 1901 • 39,338,427 76 8 6 1905 . 39,068,827 74 6 3 See also: Defence.—The Commonwealth defence forces in Queensland had an actual strength at the end of 1905 of 7212 men, comprising a permanent force of 258, 2486 See also:militia, 959 cadets and 3189 riflemen. Mining.—In Mount Morgan Queensland possesses one of the chief gold mines of the See also:world, and this mine is also one of the leading copper mines of the Commonwealth. In 1905 the value of the mineral See also:production of the state was £3,726,275, being an excess over that of the previous year of '£22,034, the highest in the See also:history of the state. This advance was due, not to any improvement in the gold yield, which, latterly, has receded from the high level of former years, but to the increased output of the See also:industrial metals. The value of the minerals, other than gold, won during 1905 amounted to £1,208,980, almost one-third of the total value of the year's mineral production, in which gold represented £2,517,295; See also:silver, L69,176; copper, L503,547; tin, £297,454, and coal, £155,477. See also:Agriculture.—The total area under cultivation in Queensland in 1905 was 622,987 acres, the principal crops being:—wheat, 119,356 acres; See also:maize, 113,720 acres; See also:hay, 37,425 acres; green See also:forage, 66,183 acres; potatoes, 7170 acres; barley, 5201 acres.Sugar-See also: cane cultivation is important. The progress of the industry may be gauged from the following figures:—area under cane in 1864, 94 acres; 1871, 9581 acres; 1881, 28,026 acres; 1891, 50,948 acres; 1901, 112,031 acres; 1905, 134,107 acres. The greater part of the field See also:work on the Queensland plantations was long performed by coloured labour, chiefly South Sea islanders. In 1901, however, the federal parliament passed an See also:act under the provisions of which a limited number of Pacific islanders were allowed to enter Australia up to the 31st of See also:
Stock-raising is, however, the principal industry of the country. At the See also: close of 1905 the See also:numbers of the principal kinds of stock depastured were: -See also:cattle, 2,963,695; See also:sheep, 12,535,231; horses, 430,565; See also:swine, 164,087. The cattle industry has been greatly affected by the ravages of the cattle tick and by a See also:succession of disastrous seasons, and the number in the state in 1905 was considerably less than half the number mustered in 1894. As the state is very lightly stocked a few good seasons will serve to bring the number of cattle up to the previous greatest See also:record. The sheep industry in Queensland though of less importance than the cattle, is still considerable, and of the six states of Australia, Queensland ranks second in the number which it depastures. The sheep depastured in 1905 were some nine millions less than in 1892. The weight of See also:wool exported in 1905 was 53,072,727 lb; in 1892, however, the export was over 105 millions. Good progress has been made in dairying, the production of See also:butter in 1905 being 20,320,000 lb; of See also:cheese, 2,682,089 lb; of See also:
The See also: horse See also:power employed in 1905 was 28,009; the value of plant and machinery was £3,988,056; and of land and premises £2,709,951 ; while the value of the output stood at £8,130,480. Commerce.—The See also:shipping entering Queensland ports in 1905 had a See also:tonnage of 1,067,741 as compared with 468,607 in 189o. The imports in 1905 were £6,699,345, which is much less than the average of Australia, but nearly all the Queensland importations are for See also:home See also:consumption, whereas New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia have a large re-export See also:trade. In 1861 the imports were valued at £968,000, or £31 per inhabitant; in 1871, £1,563,000, or £13 per inhabitant; in 1881, £4,064,000, or £18, 6s. per inhabitant; in 1891, £5,079,000, or £12, 13s. per inhabitant; in 1900, £7,184,112, or £14, 13s. 3d. per inhabitant. The disparity between the capitation figures of various years is due chiefly to two causes: the irregularity of the state borrowings, and the manner in which private capital has been sent from England and from the Australian states for investment in Queensland, both the borrowings and the investments appearing in the imports. The important bearing of these two items on the Queensland import trade may be gathered from the fact that, since 1863, there has been an inflow of capital into the state at the rate of about one million and a See also:quarter See also:sterling per annum. The exports from Queensland in 1905 were valued at £I1,939,594, which is equal to the very high average of £22, 14s. 3d. per head; nearly the whole amount represents goods and produce of local origin. Going back to 1861 the amount of exports at the various decennial periods was: Value of Total Exports. Exports per Head. Year.1861 £709,599 £22 14 8 1871 2,760,045 22 18 8 1881 3,540,366 15.18 6 1891 8,305,387 20 13 6 1901 9,249,366 18 5 to Brisbane is the chief seat of trade, but this port does not hold so predominating a position as do the chief cities of the other states in regard to their See also: minor ports. In 1905 the trade at the seven principal seaports of Queensland was: Port. Imports. Exports. Brisbane . £4.104,574 £3,524,939 Rockhampton . 437,068 1,708,489 Townsville . 671,853 1,838,055 Bundaberg . 121,567 498,381 Maryborough 157,023 248,706 Mackay 80,468 499,034 Cairns 184,716 873,370 Railways.—Up to 1905 the state had expended £21,683,355 upon the construction and equipment of railways. The mileage open for traffic at the end of that year was 3113; there were also 268 m. of privately owned railways. Railway construction in the state commenced in 1864, some five years after the introduction of responsible government. Progress during the early years was very slow; in 1871 only 218 m. had been constructed and in 1881 only 800 m.; between 1881 and 1891 railway construction was pushed on rapidly, an average of 152 M. a year being opened between those See also:dates.In 1891 the length open for traffic was 2320 m., and in 1901 2801 M. The state railways in 1905 earned £1,483,535 and the working expenses were £851,627, leaving the See also: net earnings £631,908, which is equal to 2.91% upon the capital expended. As the rate of interest paid on the outstanding loans of the Queens-land government is 3'94, there is an actual loss to the state of 0.30 %. This loss, however, is more than counterbalanced by the advantages resulting from the construction of the railways. Posts and Telegraphs.—There were 1360 See also:post offices in the state in 1905; See also:telegraph stations numbered 515, and there were 19 See also:telephone exchanges. The revenue from these three services in 1905 was respectively £233,523, £88,285 and £31,765-a total of £353,573, as against an expenditure of £415,420. Banking.—The liabilities of the eleven banks trading in the state in 1905 totalled £13,770,865, and the See also:assets £16,362,292. The deposits amounted to £13,217,084. The banks held See also:coin and See also:bullion to the value of £1,897,576. In the Government Savings See also:Bank there was a sum of £3,992,758 to the See also:credit of 84,163 depositors. The deposits in all banks amounted, therefore, to £17,2o9,842, which represents £32, 11s. iod. per head of population. HISTORY The Portuguese may have known the northern shore nearly a See also:century before Torres, in 1605, sailed through the strait since called after him, or before the Dutch landed in the Gulf of Carpentaria.See also: Captain See also:Cook passed along the eastern coast in 1770, taking See also:possession of the country as New South Wales. Flinders visited Moreton Bay in 1802. Oxley was on the Brisbane in 1823, and See also:Allan See also:Cunningham on Darling Downs in 1827. See also:Sir T. L. Mitchell in 1846–47 made known the Maranoa, Warrego, and Barcoo districts. Leichhardt in 1845–47 traversed the coast country, going round the gulf to Port Essington, but was lost in his third great See also:journey. See also:Kennedy followed down the Barcoo, but was killed by the blacks while exploring York Peninsula. See also:Burke and See also:Wills crossed western Queens-land in 186o. Landesborough, See also:
A See also: desire to form fresh penal depots led to the See also:discovery of Brisbane river in December 1823, and the See also:proclamation of a penal See also:settlement there in August 1826. The convict population was gradually withdrawn again to Sydney, and in 1842 the See also:place was declared open to free persons only. The first land See also:sale in Brisbane was on August 9, 1843. An See also:attempt was made in 1846, under the colonial See also:ministry of Gladstone, to establish at Gladstone on Port Curtis the colony of North Australia for See also:ticket-of-leave men from Britain and See also:Van See also:Diemen's Land. See also:Earl See also:Grey, when secretary for the Colonies, under strong colonial appeals arrested this policy, and See also:broke up the convict settlement. In 1841 there were 176 males and 24 females; in 1844, 540 in all; in 1846, 1867. In 1834 the See also:governor and the See also:English rulers thought it necessary to abandon Moreton Bay altogether, but the order was withheld. The first stock belonged wholly to' the colonial Government, but flocks and herds of settlers came on the Darling Downs in 1841. In 1844 there were 17 squatting stations round Moreton Bay and 26 in Darling Downs, having 13,295 cattle and 184,651 sheep. In 1849 there were 2812 horses, 72,096 cattle, and 1,077,983 sheep. But there were few persons in Brisbane and Ipswich. The Rev.Dr See also: Lang then began his agitation in England on behalf of this northern district. Some settlers, who sought a separation from' New South \Vales, offered to accept See also:British convicts if the ministry granted See also:independence. In See also:answer to their memorial a shipload of ticket-of-leave men was sent in 285o. In spite of the objection of Sydney, the Moreton Bay district was separated from New South Wales by an Order in Council of 13th May 1859, and See also:pro-claimed the colony of Queensland. The population was then about 20,000, and the revenue £6475. The constitution, which was based upon the New South Wales Act of 1853, provided for 16 electoral districts, with a See also:representation of 26 members. A Legislative Council was also formed, to which the governor of New South Wales, Sir See also:
The providing of revenue and the See also: establishment of immigration were the chief matters for See also:consideration. The See also:treasury was practically empty, but Sir The Discovery of the Goldfields, 1866–r879.—Macalister returned to power in August 1866, and dealt so vigorously with the after-effects of the See also:financial crisis that by the end of 1867 affairs had approached their normal See also:condition. A new era was now opened for Queensland by the discovery of gold. The Gympie field was discovered by See also:Nash in 1867, and a big " See also:rush " resulted. In 1872 See also:Hugh Mosman discovered Charters Towers, the premier goldfield of the colony; and Hann, the rich See also:Palmer diggings. Other important discoveries were also made, and Queensland has ever since been a gold-producing colony. Mining is the foundation upon which much of the progress of the colony has been built, and the legislation and records show continuous traces of the See also:influence of the gold-getter. In 1873 See also:
From the time of Herbert's departure until the appearance of See also:
Electoral representation was increased to See also: forty-two members. In January 1874 Palmer resigned, and Macalister came into power for two years, the most import-ant measure of his Government being the State Education Act of 1875, on which the present educational system is based. Both Messrs Mcllwraith and Griffith were members of the Macalister ministry, but the former resigned in October 1874, owing to a difference of See also:opinion as to a proposed land-See also:
L. Jack, Government geologist, took place in 1881. In 1883 a great drought prevailed, and the compulsory stoppage of public works demoralized the labour See also: market. Early in the year information reached the colony that See also:Germany proposed to annex a portion of New See also:Guinea, which, together with other islands in the Papuan Gulf, was becoming of great strategic value to Australia; and the premier, fearing that it would thus be lost to the See also:empire, instructed Mr H. M. See also:Chester, See also:police See also:magistrate at Thursday Island, to proceed to Port Moresby and take possession of the unappropriated portion of the island in the name of the crown. This act was afterwards—to the indignation of Australia—repudiated by See also:Lord See also:Derby; and, eventually, under the See also:Berlin Treaty of 1886, England and Germany entered into See also:joint-possession of that part of New Guinea lying east of 141° E. In July Sir Thomas Mcllwraith (created K.C.M.G. in 1882) was defeated by 27 votes to 16 on a proposal to arrange for the construction of a land-grant railway from See also:Charleville to the Gulf of Carpentaria. The general elections which followed were fought mainly on the questions of coloured labour for the sugar plantations and land-grant railways. The Government was defeated, and Griffith formed his first administration. Later in the year the premier drafted the Federal Council Act at Sydney, and through his efforts Queensland eventually joined the Federal Council of See also:Australasia. In 1884 a ten-million See also:Loan Act was passed, intended to secure continuity in borrowing for railway construction, but many of the lines specified were unsurveyed.According to the view now generally held in Queensland, this loan seriously hampered the colony in after years. In 1887 the number of seats in the Assembly was increased to 72 (the present number), and several reforms were effected in the public service, notably the establishment of the See also: department of agriculture. At the general elections in 1888 Sir Thomas Mcllwraith was returned for North Brisbane, defeating Sir Samuel Griffith (who had been created K.C.M.G. in 1886) by a large majority, and resumed office as premier and See also:leader of the " See also:National Party." See also:Ill-See also:health, however, soon compelled him to leave the colony, and he was succeeded by See also:Boyd See also:Dunlop Morehead. Sir Thomas Mcllwraith's inflexible nature was evidenced all through his public life. On the death of Sir See also:Anthony See also:Musgrave in Brisbane in 1888, he maintained that the Government should be consulted as to the See also:appointment of the new governor. Lord See also:Knutsford declined to accept this view, and appointed Sir.See also:
Morehead resigned, and a See also: coalition ministry, with Griffith as premier, chief secretary and See also:attorney-general, and Mcllwraith as treasurer, was formed. An agitation for the separation of Queensland into two or three See also:separate colonies--mentioned as early as 1866—was very marked during this period. It took formidable shape at Townsville in 1882, the chief See also:argument in its favour being that the north and central districts did not get a See also:fair See also:share of the public expenditure. Delegates were sent to London on several occasions to interview the Colonial Secretary, but success did not attend these See also:direct appeals. Sir Samuel Griffith's Decentralization See also:Bill of 1890, which proposed to erect separate legislatures in the three divisions with powers of local government, was a blow to separationists, and the agitation gradually disappeared. The Labour Party in Politics, z8po-z9oo.—The decade from 1890 to 1900 was chiefly notable, apart from the accomplishment of Federation, for the rise of the Labour party as a power in politics and the See also:gradual disappearance of the squatter as a dominant See also:factor. In 1890 the old opponents, Sir Samuel Griffith and Sir Thomas Mcllwraith, were still working side by side. The revenue for the year See also:fell short of the estimates by half a million sterling, and a heavy accumulated deficit had to be grappled with by Parliament. Sir Thomas Mcllwraith, the treasurer, proposed a See also:dividend tax and other imposts, which were agreed to, and a Treasury Bills Act authorizing an issue of £500,000 was also passed. A Constitution Act establishing triennial Parliaments, in place of quinquennial, which had hitherto existed, also went through. In August the great maritime strike spread to Brisbane, and crippled trade and commerce for several months. In 1891 a loan for 2,500,000, which was issued in London under the auspices of the Bank of England, failed.Sir Thomas Mcllwraith reflected strongly in Parliament on the conduct of the Bank of England, and the governor of the bank wrote to Sir James Garrick, the agent-general, protesting against Sir Thomas Mcllwraith's statements, and breaking off relations with the colony; but mutual explanations afterwards healed the See also: breach. Litigation was initiated by the London See also:board of the Queens-land Investment and Land See also:Mortgage Company against the Queensland See also:directors, on the ground that they had made advances without taking adequate See also:security. The case was tried by the chief See also:justice, Sir See also:
As an outcome of this strike, " New Australia "—a settlement on communistic lines—was founded in See also: Paraguay (q.v.). The year 1892 was one of gloom and depression: want of See also:money interfered with public works, and the impending stoppage of Kanaka labour and the low See also:price of sugar almost ruined the planters. Sir Samuel Griffith then announced his See also:conversion to the policy of continuing Kanaka labour for the sugar plantations, and also of land-grant railways. An act was passed authorizing agreements with companies for the extension of the See also:trunk lines on this principle; but the measure was unpopular, and no transactions under the act are recorded. Financial depression reached its height in 1893: the salaries of ministers and See also:civil servants were reduced, and drastic retrenchments were made in every department. In February, 107 in. of rain fell at the head of the Brisbaneriver, and enormous losses were caused by the resulting floods; several vessels, including the Queensland Government gunboat Paluma, were washed into the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and left high and dry when the waters subsided. A second See also:flood followed and caused further losses. Rockhampton, Bowen, Townsville, and other places also suffered severely from floods. On 13th March Sir Samuel Griffith was gazetted chief justice, and on the 27th Mr (afterwards Sir) Hugh M. See also:Nelson became premier and treasurer, and Sir Thomas Mcllwraith chief secretary and secretary for railways. Parliament was dissolved on 3rd April, and after the general elections the ministry returned with 38 supporters, against Labour, 16, and Opposition and See also:Independent, 18. During the See also:month several financial institutions suspended payment, and on 15th May the Queensland National Bank closed its doors.Parliament was hurriedly summoned to See also: deal with the financial crisis and the question of the Government funds held by the Queensland National Bank. Treasury notes, issued against coin held by the treasurer, were made legal See also:tender throughout the colony; an issue of £1,000,00o treasury bills to retire the treasury notes was authorized, and a series of acts dealing with the suspended banks were passed. To assist the unemployed, labour and co-operative communities were started, but proved failures. An impetus was given to the sugar industry by the Sugar Works See also:Guarantee Act, which authorized the treasurer to guarantee See also:debentures issued by companies for the erection of sugar See also:mills and plant. In 1894 little legislation was achieved, the policy of the Government being directed towards national rehabilitation. In 1895 Sir Thomas Mcllwraith left the colony for London, where he died on 17th July 1900. At the general See also:election of 1896 the Labour party slightly improved its position. In that year a committee of investigation reported a heavy deficit in the affairs of the Queensland National Bank, and made certain recommendations. In 1897 the bank was reconstructed a second time upon terms very favourable to the institution. An act was passed granting powers to a company to construct a railway from the rich mining district of Chillagoe to the See also:terminus of the Cairns railway at Mareeba; at the end of fifty years the State was to have the right to acquire the line. In April 1898 the Queensland-See also:born statesman, T. J.Byrnes, whose early death in the following September was lamented throughout Australia, succeeded Sir Hugh Nelson as premier. On 24th October the trial of the three ex-directors of the Queensland National Bank, Messrs F. H. Hart, B. D. Morehead and A. B. See also:
(See AUSTRALIA.) Federation was a burning question in the neighbouring colonies during the year, but Queenslanders generally took little interest in the See also: movement, and the colony was not represented at the Federal Convention at See also:Melbourne when the Commonwealth Bill was passed. In 1899 Mr (afterwards Sir J. R.) See also:Dickson, who had succeeded Byrnes as premier, was enlisted on the side of the " Billites," and in June of that year an Enabling Bill was passed. In September the See also:Referendum supported the act by the narrow majority of 7492 votes on a See also:poll of 69,484. Towards the end of the second session the ministry narrowly escaped defeat on the Railway See also:Standing Committees Bill, and resigned. Mr Dawson, leader of the Labour Opposition, then formed a ministry, and held office from 1st December to 7th December 1899. He was then defeated on a motion by R. Philp, and resigned, and Philp became premier, and was in power when Queensland joined the Commonwealth. The year was shadowed by the continuance of a terrible drought, which towards the end of 1900 became so aggravated that the revenue began to fall off, owing to decreased receipts from railways and land. In that year Philp's chief policy was the passing of legislation to permit of the construction of railways by private enterprise. The Labour party offered vigorous opposition; but notwithstanding this a certain amount of progress was made. The Government appointed Dr See also:Maxwell, an American sugar See also:expert, to super-intend the sugar industry in the colony; a State school of mines was established at Charters Towers; and the compulsory clauses of the Education Act were put in force for the first time.Another act of importance was the establishment of a Government land bank. A powerful agitation for the extension or renewal of the leases of pastoral lands was raised, but no legislation resulted. A See also: suggestion that Sir Samuel Griffith should retire from the chief justiceship, on a See also:pension of £1750 a year (to be reduced by any emoluments received), to enable him to enter Federal politics, fell through. Some important discoveries of coal were made during the year, and dredging the northern rivers for gold became an established industry. J. R. Dickson represented the colony in London at the See also:conference of Federal delegates in 1900, when the final details of the Commonwealth were settled. Early in 1901 he was created K.C.M.G., but died somewhat suddenly, at Sydney, on 9th January of that year, shortly after he had been made a member of the first Federal ministry. See also:Alien Immigration.—The working classes of Queensland have always objected to the presence of coloured aliens, and successive Governments have legislated against indiscriminate immigration into the colony. In 1876 Governor Cairns reserved an act imposing certain disabilities upon Chinese working on goldfields. In that year a poll tax of £10 was imposed upon Chinese arriving. In 1884 another principle was adopted: masters of See also:ships were only allowed to carry to Queensland ports one Chinese for every 50 registered tons, and the poll tax was increased to £30.In 1888 Queensland took the See also: lead in summoning an intercolonial conference on Chinese immigration, the outcome of which was the See also:adoption of See also:uniform legislation: in the Queensland Act passed that year the main See also:provision was that only one Chinese for every 500 registered tons should be permitted to be carried to the colony from Chinese ports. The poll tax was then abolished. This act was also reserved, but received the Royal Assent on 5th February 1890, after slight modification had been made. Treaty arrangements with See also:Japan had been carried through by the Imperial Government, at the initiation of Queensland, under which the Japanese Government undertook to prevent the See also:emigration of coolies to the colony; and a Pearl Shell Fisheries Act was passed in 1895 placing restrictions upon the acquisition of vested interests in the industry by Japanese and other aliens. At Federation eight acts—two Imperial and six local—regulated the importation of Kanakas from the South Seas: that of 188o was the basis of the system under which Kanakas were recruited in the islands, brought to the colony in schooners, employed there, and returned to their homes at the end of their three years' engagements. The 1884 act confined Kanakas to field work. In December 1884 a Royal Commission was appointed, consisting of Messrs W. Kinnaird See also:Rose, J. F. See also:Buckland, and Hugh M. See also:Milman, to report upon the system of recruiting Kanakas. Following the report of the Commission, which was in effect that many islanders had been recruited " by force and See also:fraud," Sir Samuel Griffith, then premier, introduced the important Pacific Island Labourers Amendment Act of 1885, which stopped the importation of Kanakas after 1890.It was—and is—an article of faith with the working classes that white labour could be utilized for sugar cultivation. Yet from the passing of the act the sugar industry began to decay, no fresh capital was put into it, plantations dwindled down in value 5o to 75%, mills were closed, and the magnificent industry threatened to See also: die out. Sir Samuel Griffith, being converted by these signs of the times from his position that sugar could flourish in the colony without coloured labour, issued on 12th February 1892 his " Manifesto to the People of Queensland," in which he acknowledged that to prevent the collapse of sugar-growing it was necessary to resume the immigration of Polynesians. This manifesto was the forerunner of the 1892 act, which reintroduced Kanaka labour. Since this time there has been no further State legislation on the subject, but the Federal Parliament has dealt with the See also:matter (see above). Land Legislation.—In Queensland's early days, with the pre-dominance of the squatting class, the lands were freely leased in large blocks for sheep and cattle grazing. The squatter furnished 5o% of the public revenue with his rents, and opened upthe great interior by his pioneering enterprise. As, however, population increased, the See also:necessity for the agriculturist arose, and it became requisite to legislate in the interests of the small holder. Successive Queensland Governments have had some of their hardest work in adapting their land legislation to the needs of the community, See also:recent policy being to reduce large estates and place the See also:cultivator on the soil. At separation from New South Wales the holding of land was regulated by Orders in Council, under an Imperial act of 1846: untransferable leases of " runs " for fourteen years were issued, the minimum size of the run was measured in sheep-carrying capacity—4000 sheep being the least number, and £10 the minimum See also:rent. The lessee was able to buy up his holding in blocks of 16o acres at a time, £1 per See also:acre being the minimum price, and was entitled to a renewal of his See also:lease at its expiry. The minimum lease principle shut out the small agriculturist.The first leading acts passed by Queensland were the Crown Lands See also: Alienation Act of 1868, dealing with the settled districts, and the Pastoral Leases Act of 1869, dealing with the unsettled districts—these divisions were fixed by the first-named measure. The " resumption " principle was introduced by the 1868 act: lands in the settled districts were resumed after twelve months from the passing of the measure, and lessees were granted leases of half of their holdings for ten years; the other moiety was thrown open for settlement. The 1869 act granted new leases for twenty-one years at practically the same low rentals, but 10 % was added to the rent after each period of seven years; the area of a run was fixed at from 25 to loo sq. m. This act greatly pleased the squatters. In 1884 the Dutton Act was passed. Its importance lies in its dealings with the 1869 act leases: on their expiry the State resumed from one-quarter to one-half of the area as crown lands, which were thrown open to selectors, and new leases of from ten to fifteen years were granted for the balance. Grazing farms (20,000 acres) and agricultural farms (128o acres) were established. This measure was very unpopular with the squatters. With the act of 1897 it forms the basis of the existing land regulations of Queensland. Under the 1897 act the passing of the land into the hands of agriculturists was further marked by the creation of agricultural homesteads (160, 320, or 640 acres), grazing homesteads (20,000 acres), scrub selections (to,000 acres), and unconditional selections (128o acres). Some of these classes of selections could be See also:purchased right out, and all were leased at extremely moderate rates. Sales of country lands were established.Two measures were passed, in 1894 and 1897—the Agricultural Lands Purchases Acts—under which the State was authorized to purchase suitable estates of specially fertile land already alienated, to be cut up and thrown open as agricultural farms. These measures confirmed Queensland's determination to encourage agriculture. Owing to the expiration of pastoral leases and the fact that no legislation existed for their renewal for a term long enough to encourage the investment of capital, a formidable agitation prevailed in the colony, the lessees bitterly complaining of the uncertainty of their See also: tenure. The British Australasian Society was formed in Great Britain, to protect the interests of British capital invested in the pastoral industry in Queensland. In 1900, out of the total Queensland area of 427,838,080 acres, no less than 411,793,786 acres remained in the hands of the State unalienated. U. 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