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XXI1 . I0Presbyterianism. In 1642 the See also:Long See also:Parliament abolished See also:Episcopacy (the See also:act to come into force on the 5th of See also:November The See also:West-1643); and summoned an See also:assembly of divines to meet minter at See also:Westminster in See also:June 1643 to advise parliament Assembly. as to the new See also:form of See also: Judged by the See also:objects for which it was summoned the Westminster Assembly was a failure, a remarkable failure. Episcopacy, Erastianism and Independency, though of little See also:account in the assembly, were to bulk largely in See also:England's future; while the church polity which the assembly favoured and recommended was to be almost unknown. Judged in other ways, however, the See also:influence of the assembly's labours has been very great. The Confession of Faith and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms are recognized and venerated See also:standards in all the lands where See also:British Presbyterianism, with its sturdy characteristics, has taken See also:root. And the Directory of Public See also:Worship has shaped and coloured, perhaps too thoroughly, the See also:ritual and See also:atmosphere of every See also:group of See also:Protestant Anglo-Saxon worshippers throughout the See also:world, except Episcopalians. In June 1646 the See also:ordinance establishing presbyteries was ratified by both houses of parliament, and a few days afterwards it was ordered to be put into See also:execution. Twelve presbyteries were erected in See also:London; See also:Shropshire and See also:Lancashire were organized; and See also:Bolton was sa vigorous in the cause as to gain the name of the Gene la of Lancashire. But the See also:system never took root. Not only were there well-known adverse influences, but the See also:soil seems to have been uncongenial. As compared with Scotland, See also:English Presbyterianism had more of the See also:lay See also:element. In every classis or See also:presbytery there were two elders to each See also:minister. The See also:Synod of London met half-yearly from 1647 till 1655. Synods Synod oY also were held in the See also:north. But during the See also:Common- London. See also:wealth Independency gained ground. Then with the
Restoration came Episcopacy, and the persecution of all who were not Episcopalians; and the See also:dream and See also:vision of a truly Reformed English Church practically passed away.
After the Revolution and during the reign of See also: Elsewhere it is either weak or non-existent. Even where it is comparatively strong it is largely See also:exotic. The membership is mainly Scottish, and the ministers
1 Drysdale, History of the Presbyterians in England, p. 625. II
290
have been imported principally from Scotland. To English See also:people, therefore, the Presbyterian is still the " Scotch Church," and they are as a whole slow to connect themselves with it. Efforts have been made to counteract this feeling by making the Church more distinctly English. The danger in this direction is that when Presbyterianism has been modified far enough to suit the English See also:taste it may be found less acceptable to its more stalwart sup-porters from beyond the See also:Tweed. Following the See also:lead of the Independents, who set up See also:Mansfield See also:College at See also:Oxford, the Presbyterian Church has founded Westminster College at See also:Cambridge as a substitute for its Theological See also: In these no See also:change, it is alleged, has been made in regard to the substance of the Westminster doctrine, but there is an alteration of emphasis and proportion.
There are in England fourteen congregations in connexion with the Church of Scotland, six of them in London and the See also:remainder in See also:Berwick, Northumberland, See also:Carlisle and Lancashire.
Many Unitarians in England still See also:call themselves Presbyterians. This, except historically, is a misnomer, for, though descended from the old English Presbyterians, they retain nothing of their distinctive doctrine or polity—nothing of Presbyterianism, indeed, but the name.
See also:Ireland.
Presbyterianism in Ireland, in See also:modern times at least, See also:dates from the See also:plantation of See also:Ulster in the reign of See also: Their ministers, silenced by See also:Wentworth, after an ineffectual attempt to reach New England, fled to Scotland, and there took a leading part in the great See also:movement of 1638. After the Irish See also:rebellion of 1641 the Protestant See also:interest for a time was ruined. A majority of the Ulster Protestants were Presbyterians, and in a great religious revival which took See also:place the ministers of the, Scottish regiments stationed in Ireland took a leading part. See also:Kirk-sessions were formed in four regiments, and the first See also:regular TheFtrst presbytery was held at See also:Carrickfergus on the loth of "'First June 1642, attended by five ministers and by ruling P"sbY O. elders from the regimental sessions. This presbytery supplied ministers to as many congregations as possible; and for the remainder ministers were sent from Scotland. By the end of 1643 the Ulster Church was fairly established. Notwithstanding intervening reverses there were by 1647 nearly See also:thirty ordained ministers in fixed charges in Ulster besides the chaplains of the Scottish regiments. At the Restoration, in which they heartily co-operated, there were in Ulster seventy ministers in fixed charges, with nearly eighty parishes or congregations containing one hundred thousand persons. There were five presbyteries holding monthly meetings and See also:annual visitations of all the congregations within their See also:bounds, and coming together in general synod four times a See also:year. Entire conformity with the Scottish Church was maintained, and strict discipline was enforced by See also:pastoral visitations, kirk-sessions and presbyteries. After the Restoration the determination of the government to put down Presbyterianism was speedily See also:felt in Ireland. In 1661 the lords justices forbade all unlawful assemblies, and in these they included meetings of presbytery as exercising ecclesiastical See also:jurisdiction not warranted by the law. Bishop See also:Jeremy See also: Great See also:attention is given to the See also:education of the ministry, a considerable number of whom, in recent years, have taken arts degrees at Oxford and Cambridge. As far as the difference in See also:language will permit, there is cordial fellowship and co-operation with the Presbyterian Church of England. The appetite of the Welsh people for sermons is enormous, and the preachers are characterized by an exceptionally high See also:order of See also:pulpit See also:power.
(W. Y.)
United States.
Presbyterianism in the United States is a See also:reproduction and further development of Presbyterianism in See also:Europe. The history of the See also:American Presbyterian churches, excluding the two "Reformed" Churches (see REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES for the See also:German See also:body, and REFORMED CHURCH IN See also:AMERICA for the Dutch body), may be divided into three periods.
Presbyterian worship and discipline, and for several years the Church
prospered not only in Ulster but also in the south and west. In 1672 she received a yearly See also: They were opposed to James II., though they had benefited by his See also:Declaration of See also:Indulgence, and they were the first to congratulate the See also:Prince of See also:Orange on his arrival in England. The heroic See also:defence of See also:Londonderry owed much to them, as they were a majority of the population, and some of their ministers rendered conspicuous service. There were then in Ireland about a hundred congregations, seventy-five with settled ministers, under five presbyteries. Their preponderance in Ulster and their consciousness of their great service to England led them first of all to See also:hope that Presbyterianism might be substituted for Episcopacy in Ulster, and afterwards, that it might be placed on an equal
i footing with the latter. During the 18th century Irish Presbyterianism became infected I with Arianism. Under the leadership of Dr See also: It amounted in 1902 to £588,028. The interest accruing from it is added to the yearly sustentation contributions, and forms a central fund for ministerial support. Since the See also:state endowment ceased the See also:average income of ministers from their congregations has considerably increased. The Irish Presbyterian Church has set an example to all her See also:sister churches by her forwardness to care for the poor. Her " Presbyterian See also:Orphan Society " undertakes the support of every poor orphan See also:child throughout the Church. No Presbyterian orphan child now needs to seek workhouse See also:relief. The orphans are boarded in the homes of respectable poor people, who thus also benefit by the society. A See also:scheme of See also:pensions for her aged poor has been instituted. Three small communities of Presbyterians maintain a separate See also:autonomy in Ireland, viz. the Reformed Presbyterian Church, with thirty-six; the Eastern Reformed, with six; and the Secession Church, with ten congregations. t. The Colonial Feriod.—The earliest Presbyterian See also:emigration consisted of See also:French See also:Huguenots under the auspices of See also:Admiral See also:Coligny, led to See also:Port Royal, South Carolina, by See also:Jean Ribaut in 1562, and to See also:Florida (near the See also:present St See also:Augustine) by Rene de Laudonniere in 1564, and by Ribaut in 1565. The former enter-prise was soon abandoned, and the colonists of the latter were massacred by the Spaniards. Under See also:Pierre de Guast, sieur de Monts, Huguenots settled in Nova See also:Scotia in 1604 but did not remain after 1607. Huguenot churches were formed on Staten See also:Island, New See also:York, in 1665; in New York See also:City in 1683; at See also:Charleston, South Carolina, in 1686; at See also:Boston, See also:Massachusetts, in 1687; at New Rochelle, New York, in 1688; and at other places. The Charleston church alone of these See also:early churches maintains its See also:independence of any American denomination. English Puritans emigrated under the auspices of the See also:Virginia See also:Company to the See also:Bermudas in 1612; and in 1617 a Presbyterian Church, governed by ministers and four elders, was established there by See also:Lewis See also:Hughes, who used the See also:liturgy of the isles of See also:Guernsey and See also:Jersey. Beginning with 1620, New England was colonized by English Presbyterians of the two types which See also:developed from the discussions of the Westminster Assembly (1643–1648) into Presbyterianism and See also:Congregationalism. The See also:Plymouth See also:colony was rather of the Congregational type, and the Massachusetts See also:Bay colony rather of the Presbyterian. These types co-operated as in Old England in the county associations; and a mixed system was produced, called by Henry M. See also:Dexter " a Congregationalized Presbyterianism or a Presbyterianized Congregationalism." Presbyterianism was stronger in See also:Connecticut than in Massachusetts. Thence it crossed into the Dutch settlements on the See also:Hudson and the See also:Delaware, and mingled with other elements in Virginia, Mary-See also:land and the Carolinas. Nine of these Puritan Presbyterian churches were established on Long Island between 164o and 1670—one at See also:Southampton and one at See also:Southold (originally of the Congregational type) in 1640, one at Hempstead about 1644, one at See also:Jamaica in 1662, and churches at See also:Newtown and Setauket in the next half century; and three Puritan Presbyterian churches were established in Westchester county, New York, between 1677 and 1685. In New York City, See also:Francis Doughty preached to Puritan Presbyterians in 1643; in 165o he was succeeded by See also:Richard See also:Denton (1586–1662). Doughty preached in Virginia and See also:Maryland in 1650–1659, and was the See also:father of British Presbyterianism in the See also:Middle Colonies. His work in Virginia and Maryland was carried on twenty-five years later by Francis Makemie (d. 1708).
Irish Presbyterianism was carried to America by an unknown Irish minister in 1668. Its foremost representative was Francis Makemie, already mentioned, who, in 1683, as an ordained minister of the presbytery of Laggan, was invited to minister to the Mary-land and Virginia Presbyterians. In 1684 he acted as pastor of an Irish church at See also: In 1716 this presbytery became a synod by dividing itself into four " sub-See also:ordinate meetings or presbyteries," after the Irish See also:model. The synod increased the number of its churches by a large accession from New York and from New Jersey, where there had been large Presbyterian settlements. The synod seems to have remained without a constitution and without subscription until 1729, when it adopted the Westminster standards. In 1732 the presbytery of
Dunagall " (See also:Donegal) was established in See also:Lancaster county, See also:Pennsylvania.
Two parties had developed with the growth of the Church. The stricter party urged the See also:adoption of the Westminster standards and conformity thereto; the broader party were unwilling to See also:sacrifice their See also:liberty. The former followed the model of the Church of Scotland; the liberal party sympathized with the London and Dublin Presbyterians. The two parties united under the act of 1729, which adopted the Westminster symbols " as being, in all the essential and necessary articles, See also:good forms of See also:sound wordsand systems of Christian doctrine." This adopting act allowed scruples as to " articles not essential and necessary in doctrine, worship or government "—the presbytery being See also:judge in the See also:case and not the subscriber. In 1730–1732 the stricter party in the presbyteries of New Castle and Donegal insisted on full subscription, and in 1736, in a minority synod, interpreted the adopting act according to their own views. The liberals put themselves on guard against the plotting of the other See also:side. See also:Friction was increased by a contest between See also: The presbytery of New See also:Brunswick declined to yield (1739). The Cross party charged the Tennents with See also:heresy and disorder; the Tennents charged their opponents with ungodliness and tyranny. When the synod met in 1741 the moderate men remained away; and thus the synod See also:broke in two. The New York presbytery declined at first to unite with either party, worked in vain for reconciliation, and finally joined with the Tennents in establishing the synod of New York (1745) which was called the New Side, in contradistinction to the synod of Philadelphia, the Old Side. During the. separation the New Side established the college of New Jersey at Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth) in 1747, and the Log College of the Tennents was merged into it. It was removed to See also:Princeton in 1755, funds for its aid being received from England, Ireland and Scotland. The Old Side adopted the See also:academy at New London, See also:Chester county, Pennsylvania, which had been organized by Francis See also:Alison in 1741, as their own; but the New London school broke up when Alison became a See also:professor in the Philadelphia Academy (afterwards the university of Pennsylvania). During the separation the synod of Philadelphia decreased from twenty-six to twenty-two ministers, but the synod of New York See also:grew from twenty to seventy-two ministers, and the New Side reaped all the fruits of the Great Awakening under Whitefield and his successors. Different views on subscription and discipline, and the arbitrary act of excision were the barriers to union, but these were removed; in 1758 the adopting act was re-established in its See also:original breadth, the " Synod of New York and Philadelphia " was formed, and the See also:reunion was signalized by the formation of the presbytery of Han-over in Virginia. Under John See also:Witherspoon the college of New Jersey was the favoured school of the reunited church. The union was not perfect; the presbytery of Donegal was for three years in revolt against the synod ; and in 1762 a second presbytery of Philadelphia was formed; but the strength of the synod increased rapidly and at the outbreak of the See also:War of Independence it had 11 presbyteries and 132 ministers. Presbyterianism had an independent development in the Carolinas, whither there was a considerable Scotch See also:migration in 1684–1687. William See also:Dunlop (c. 1650–1700) ministered to them until 1688, when he became See also:principal of the university of Glasgow. At Charleston a mixed See also:congregation of Scotch Presbyterians and English Puritans was organized in 1690. What is now See also:Dorchester county, South Carolina, was settled in 1695 by members of a church established in Dorchester, Massachusetts. In 1710 there were five churches in the Carolinas; in 1722-1723 they formed the presbytery of James Island, which (after 1727) went through the same struggle as the synod of Philadelphia in reference to subscription; and in 1731 the parties separated into subscribers and non-subscribers.
From New England, as has been seen, Puritan settlers established Presbyterian churches (or churches which immediately became Presbyterian) in Long Island, on New Jersey, and in South Carolina; but the Puritans who remained in New England usually established Congregational churches. But there were exceptions: Irish Presbyterians from Ulster formed a church at Londonderry, New See also:Hampshire, which, about 1729, grew into a presbytery; the Boston presbytery, organized in 1745, became in 1774 the synod of New England with three presbyteries and sixteen ministers; and there were two independent presbyteries, that of " the See also:East-See also: 2. From the War of Independence to the Civil War.—During the War of Independence the Presbyterian churches suffered severely. Ministers and. people with few exceptions—the most notable being the Scotch Highlanders who had settled in the valley of the See also:Mohawk in New York and on Cape Fear river in North Carolina—sided with the patriot or Whig party: John Witherspoon was the only clergyman in the See also:Continental See also:Congress of 1776, and was otherwise a prominent See also:leader; John See also: These formed themselves into the presbytery of See also:Cumberland, on the 4th of See also:February 1810, which grew in three years into a synod of three presbyteries and became the " Cumberland Presbyterian Church." In 1813 they revised the Westminster Confession and excluded, as they claimed, See also:fatalism and See also:infant damnation. If they had appealed to the General Assembly they might have received See also:justice, or possibly the separation might have been on a larger See also:scale. In 1822, under the influence of john See also:Mitchell See also:Mason (177o-1829), the Associate Reformed Synod combined with the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, but the majority was too slender to make the union thorough. The greater part of the ministers decided to remain separate, and accordingly organized three independent synods—New York, Scioto and the Carolinas. In 1858 the associate synods of the north and west united with the Associate Synod as the United Presbyterian Church. In 1833 the Reformed Presbyterian Church divided into New See also:Lights and Old Lights in a dispute as to the propriety of Covenanters exercising the rights of citizenship under the constitution of the United States. A great and widespread revival marked the opening years of the century, resulting in marvellous increase of zeal and See also:numbers. New measures were adopted, doctrines were adapted to the times, and See also:ancient disputes were revived between the conservative and progressive forces. Theological seminaries had been organized: the Theological See also:Seminary of the Presbyterian Church at Princeton, N.J., founded in 1812 by the General Assembly; the See also:Auburn Theological Seminary at Auburn, N.Y., founded in 1819 by the synod of See also:Geneva, and afterwards associated with the New School; a school at See also:Hampden See also:Sidney, Virginia, founded by the synod of Virginia in 1824, named Union Theological Seminary in Virginia after 1826, supported after 1828 by the synods of Virginia and North Carolina, and in 1898 removed to See also:Richmond, Va.; the Western Theological Seminary, founded at See also:Allegheny (See also:Pittsburg), Pa., in 1827 by the General Assembly; the Presbyterian Theological Seminary at See also:Columbia, South Carolina, founded in 1828 by the synod of South Carolina; See also:Lane Theological Seminary, founded independently in 1829 by the New School at See also:Cincinnati, See also:Ohio; and Union Theological Seminary, founded in 1836 by independent See also:action of New School men, in New York City. Differences in doctrine as well as polity and discipline became more and more prominent. The doctrinal differences came to a See also:head in the trials of George Duffield (1832), Lyman See also:Beecher (1835) and See also:Albert See also:Barnes (1836) which, however, resulted in the acquittal of the accused, but which increased friction and ill feeling. The differences developed were chiefly between general See also:atonement and atonement for the elect only and between mediate imputation and immediate imputation. The agitation with reference to See also:African See also:slavery threw the bulk of the See also:Southern Presbyterians on the Old Side, which was further strengthened by the accession of the Associate Reformed. The ancient differences between Old and New Side were revived, and once more it was urged that there should be (I) strict subscription, (2) exclusion of the Congregationalized churches, and strict Presbyterian polity and discipline, and (3) the condemnation and exclusion of the new divinity and the See also:maintenance of scholastic orthodoxy. In 1834 a See also:convention of the Old Side was held in Philadelphia, and the " Act and Testimony " was adopted charging doctrinal unsoundness and neglect of discipline upon the New Side, and urging that these should be excluded from the Church. The moderate men on both sides opposed this action and strove for See also:peace or an amicable separation, but in vain. In 1837 the Old Side obtained the majority in the General Assembly for the second time only in seven years; they seized their opportunity and abrogated the " Plan of Union of 1801 with the Connecticut Congregationalists," cut off the synod of Western Reserve and then the synods of See also:Utica, Geneva and Genesee, without a trial, and dissolved the third presbytery of Philadelphia without providing for the See also:standing of its ministers. The New Side men met in convention at Auburn, N.Y., in See also:August 1837, and adopted measures for resisting the wrong, but in the General Assembly of 1838 the moderator refused to re-cognize their commissioners. On an See also:appeal to the assembly the moderator's decision was reversed, a new moderator was chosen, and the assembly adjourned to another place of See also:meeting. The Old Side remained after the See also:adjournment and organized them-selves, claiming the historic See also:succession. Having the moderator and clerks from the assembly of 1837, they retained the books and papers. Thus two General Assemblies were organized, the Old and the New School. An appeal was made to the civil courts, which decided (1839) in favour of the New School; but this decision was overruled and a new trial ordered. It was deemed best, however, to cease litigation and to leave matters as they were. Several years of confusion followed. In 184o we have the first safe basis for comparison of strength. Ministers. Churches. Communicants. Old School . . 1308 1898 126,583 New School . . 1234 1375 102,060 The " sides " remained separate throughout the remainder of this period. The North was especially agitated by the slavery question.' In 1847 the synod of the Free Presbyterian Church was formed by the anti-slavery secession of the presbytery of See also:Ripley, 0. (New School), and a part of the presbytery of Mahoning, Pa., (Old School) ; this synod, then numbering five presbyteries with 43 ministers, joined the New School Assembly during the Civil War. In 1850 the New School Assembly declared slave-holding, unless excusable for some See also:special See also:reason, a cause for discipline; in 1853 it asked the Southern presbyteries to See also:report what action they had taken to put themselves in See also:accord with the See also:resolution of 1850; ' The separation of the southern part of the Associate Reformed Church from the See also:northern in 1821, and the See also:establishment of the Associate Reformed Synod of the South had not been due to slavery, but was for convenience in See also:administration. PtMebl- teries. Ministers. Churches. Communicants. 293 "n 1858, 6 synods, 21 presbyteries and about 15,000 communi- 1855 by C. W. See also:Baird's Eutaxia; in 1864 Charles W. See also:Shields (1825–cants withdrew and organized the United Synod. Just before the 1904), who afterwards entered the Protestant Episcopal Church, outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 these churches numbered : republished and urged the adoption of the See also:Book of Common See also:Prayer as amended by the Westminster Divines in the royal See also:commission of 1661; and Henry See also:Van Dyke was prominent in the latter See also:stage of the movement for a liturgy. PRESBYTERIANISM Old School . 33 171 2656 3531 292,927 (186o) New School. 22 104 1523 1482 134,933 (186o) United Synod 4 15 I13 197 10,205 (1858) Cumberland 23 96 890 1189 82,008 (1859) Presbyterian 3. Since the beginning of the Civil War.—The Southern presbyteries of the Old School Assembly withdrew in 1861, and delegates from ten southern synods (47 presbyteries) met in See also:Augusta, See also:Georgia, in See also:December, and organized as the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America, which included 700 ministers, See also:looe churches and 75,000 communicants. Its strength was increased by the addition: in 1863 of the small Independent Presbyterian Church of South Carolina; in 1865 of the United Synod (New School), which at that time had 120 ministers, 190 churches, and 12,000 communicants; in 1867 of the presbytery of Patapsco; in 1869 of the synod of Kentucky; and in 1874 of the synod of See also:Missouri. At the close of the Civil War this Southern Church adopted the name of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States.
In 1867 there was an unsuccessful attempt to combine all the Presbyterian bodies of the North. In 1869 the Old and New See also:Schools in the North combined on the basis of the common standards; to commemorate the union a memorial fund was raised which amounted in 1871 to $7,607,492. Between 1870 and 1881 three presbyteries of the Reformed Presbyterian General Synod (New School) joined the northern General Assembly. In 1906 the greater part of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (then having 195,770 members) united with the northern General Assembly. Although the differences between the Old School and the New School were much less in 1869 than in 1837—during the separation the New School was conservative, the Old School liberal, in tendency—there were serious dissensions in the northern church after the union. The first of these was due to the adoption by certain teachers in theological seminaries of the methods and results of the " higher See also:criticism," and two famous heresy cases followed. Charles See also:Augustus See also:Briggs, tried for heresy for his inaugural address in 1891 as professor of biblical See also:theology at Union Seminary (in which he attacked the inerrancy of the See also:Bible, held the composite character of the See also:Hexateuch and of the Book of See also:Isaiah and taught that sanctification is not See also:complete at See also:death), was acquitted by the presbytery of New York, but was declared guilty and was suspended from its ministry by the General Assembly of 1893. Henry Preserved See also: In 1892–1893 there was an open break between the General Assembly and Union Seminary, which repudiated the agreement of 187o, between the seminaries and the assembly; the assembly disclaimed responsibility for the Seminary's teachings and withheld See also:financial aid from its students. In 1896 McCormick Theological Seminary (which in 1858 as New See also:Albany Theological Seminary had come under the See also:control of the assembly) and Auburn Seminary refused to make the changes desired by the General Assembly; a satisfactory arrangement with McCormick was made. Lane and Auburn remained practically independent. But although the conservative party was successful in inducing successive general assemblies to lay repeatedly stronger stress on the verbal inerrancy of Holy Scripture and to make belief in such inerrancy a requisite of teachers in theological seminaries and of candidates for the ministry, there was in other matters an increasing liberal tendency. In 1902 the General Assembly adopted a Brief Statement of the Reformed Faith, not as a legal standard but as an See also:interpretation of the confession; it repudiated the doctrine of infant damnation, insisted on the consistency of See also:predestination with See also:God's universal love, and incorporated new chapters on the Holy Spirit, the love of God, and missions. The Assembly of 1906 authorized (but did not make mandatory) the use of a book of common worship; the question of a liturgy had been opened in 1 This agreement, proposed to the General Assembly in 187o by the See also:directors of Princeton and of Union, gave the Assembly a See also:veto on the See also:election and removal of professors. The northern General Assembly and the Cumberland Church, which united with it in 1906, are the only Presbyterian bodies in America that have done anything tangible for Christian union in the last fifty years: the southern Assembly is much more conservative than the northern—in 1866 it suspended James Woodrow (1828–1907), professor of natural See also:science in connexion with revealed religion, for holding evolutionary views, and it declared that See also:Adam's body was " directly fashioned by Almighty God, without any natural See also:animal parentage of any See also:kind, out of See also:matter previously created out of nothing "; and in 1897 it ordered that See also:women were not to speak in promiscuous meetings—and its attitude toward the See also:negro, insisting in separate church organizations for blacks and whites, makes union with the northern bodies difficult; the United Presbyterian Church in North America in 1890 refused to join the union of Presbyterian and Reformed missions in See also:India, and its opposition to instrumental See also:music and to the use of any songs but the psalms of the Old Testament, although this is decreasing in strength, are bars to union; the synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America in 1888 refused to unite with the United Presbyterian Church because the latter did not See also:object to the secular character of the constitution of the United States; and with the general synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church the synod could not unite in 1890 because the general synod allowed and the synod did not allow its members to " incorporate " themselves with the See also:political system of the United States. A loose union, called the " Federal Council of the Reformed Churches in America," was formed in 1894 by the churches mentioned (excepting the Southern Assembly) and the Dutch and German Reformed churches. More or less closely connected with the Northern Church are the theological seminaries at Princeton, Auburn, Pittsburg (formerly Allegheny—the Western Seminary), Cincinnati (Lane), New York (Union) and See also:Chicago (McCormick), already named, and See also:San Francisco Seminary (1871) since 1892 at San Anselmo, Cal., a theological seminary (1891) at See also:Omaha, See also:Nebraska, a German theological seminary (1869) at See also:Bloomfield, New Jersey, the German Presbyterian Theological School of the North-west (1852) at See also:Dubuque, See also:Iowa, and the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky, which is under the control and supervision of the northern and southern churches. Seminaries of the Southern Church are the Union Theological Seminary at Richmond, Virginia, and the Columbia Theological Seminary at Columbia, South Carolina, already mentioned, the See also:Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1902) at Austin, See also:Texas, the theological See also:department in the South-western Presbyterian University at See also:Clarksville, See also:Tennessee, and, for negroes, See also:Stillman See also:Institute (1877), at See also:Tuscaloosa, See also:Alabama. The United Presbyterian Church has two seminaries, one at See also:Xenia, Ohio, and one at Allegheny (Pittsburg). Of the Covenanter bodies the synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church has a theological seminary in Allegheny (Pittsburg), established in 1856, and the general synod in 1887 organized a college at Cedarville, Ohio. I he Associate Reformed Synod of the South has the See also:Erskine Theo-logical Seminary (1837) in Due West, South Carolina. The See also:foreign missionary work of the General Assembly had been carried on after 1812 through the (Congregational) American See also:Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (organized in 181o) until the separation of 1837, when the Old School Assembly established its own board of foreign missions; the New School continued to work through the American board; after the union of 1869 the separate board was perpetuated and the American board transferred to it, with the contributions made to the American board by the New School churches, the missions in See also:Africa (1833), in See also:Syria (1822), and in See also:Persia (1835). The Church now has, besides these missions, others in India (1834), See also:Siam (184o), See also:China (1846), See also:Colombia (1856), See also:Brazil (1859), See also:Japan (1859), See also:Laos (1867), See also:Mexico (transferred in 1872 by the American and Foreign Christian Union), See also:Chile (transferred in 1873 by the same Union; first established in 1845), See also:Guatemala (1882), See also:Korea (1884) and the Philippine Islands (1899). A board of home missions was organized in 1816; a board of education in 1819; a woman's board of foreign missions in 1869; a women's executive committee for home See also:mission work (which takes particular interest in the work for the freedmen) in 1878; a board of publication in 1838 (after 1887 called the board of Publication and See also:Sunday School Work); a board of aid for colleges (1883); a board of church erection in 1844; a board of work for freedmen; and a board of ministerial relief; after the union of 1869 the Board of Home Missions was removed from Philadelphia to New York City. The Southern Church, unlike the Northern, is not working through " boards," but through executive committees, which were formerly more loosely organized, and which left to the presbyteries the more See also:direct control of their activities, but which now differ little from the boards of the northern Church. It has: an executive committee on foreign missions (first definitely organized by the Assembly in 1877), which has missions in China (1867), Brazil (1869), Mexico (1874), Japan (1885), See also:Congo Free State (1891), Korea (1896) and See also:Cuba (1899); and executive committees of home missions (1865), of publication and See also:sabbath school work, of ministerial education and relief, of schools and colleges and of colored evangelization (formed in 1891). Permanent committees on the " sabbath and See also:family religion," the " Bible cause " and " evangelistic work " report to the General Assembly annually. The United Presbyterian Church has a board of foreign missions (reorganized in 1859) with missions in See also:Egypt (1853), now a synod with four presbyteries (in 1909, 71 congregations, 70 ministers and 10,341 members), in the See also:Punjab (1854), now a synod with four presbyteries (in 1909, 35 congregations, 51 ministers and 17,321 members), and in the See also:Sudan (1901); and boards of home missions (reorganized, 1859), church See also:extension (1859), publication (1859), education (1859), ministerial relief (1862), and missions to the freedmen (1863). Presbyterians of different churches in the United States in 1906 numbered 1,830,555; of this See also:total 322,542 were in Pennsylvania, where there were 248,335 members of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (the Northern Church), being more than one-fifth of its total membership; 56,587 members of the United Presbyterian Church of North America, being more than two-fifths of its total membership; 2709 members of the Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, three-tenths of its total membership; the entire membership of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States and See also:Canada (440), 3150 members of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church, nearly one-fourth of its total membership; and 2065 members of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America, general synod, about five-ninths of its total membership. The strength of the Church in Pennsylvania is largely due to the Scotch-Irish settlements in that state. Philadelphia is the home of the boards of publication and of Sunday schools of the Northern Church; and in Allegheny (Pittsburg) are the principal theological seminary of the United Presbyterian body and its See also:publishing house. In New York state there were 199,923 Presbyterians, of whom 186,278 were members of the Northern Church and 10,115 of the United Presbyterian Church of North America. In Ohio there were 138,768 Presbyterians, 114,772 being of the Northern and 18,336 of the United Presbyterian Church. The other states with a large Presbyterian population were See also:Illinois (115,602; 86,251 of the Northern Church; 17,208 of the Cumberland Church; 9555 of the United Presbyterian Church); New Jersey (79,912; 78,490 of the Northern Church); Tennessee (79,337; 42,464 being Cumberland Presbyterians, more than one-fifth of the total membership; 664o of the Colored Cumberland Church, more than one-third of its membership; 21,390 of the Southern Church; and 6786 of the Northern Church); Missouri (71,599; 28,637 of the Cumberland Church; 25,991 of the Northern Church; 14,713 of the Southern Church); Texas (62,090; 31,598 of the Cumberland Church; 23,934 of the Southern Church; 4118 of the Northern Church; and 2091 of the Colored Cumberland Church); Iowa (6o,o81; 48,326 of the Northern Church; 8890 of the United Presbyterian Church); and North Carolina (55,837; 41,322 of the Southern and 10,696 of the Northern Church). The Northern Church had a total membership of 1,179,566. The Southern Church had a total membership of 266,345. The Cumberland Presbyterian Church had (in 1906, when it became a part of the Northern Church) 195,770 members. The Colored Cumberland Church had a membership of 18,o66. The United Presbyterian Church of North America had a total membership of 130,342. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church had a total membership of 13,280. The Associate Reformed Synod of the South had a membership of 13,201. The Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America had in 1go6 a membership of9122. The "Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America, General Synod," had a membership of 362o. The Associate Presbyterian Church, or Associated Synod of North America had a membership of 786. The Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States and Canada had a membership in the United States of 440. On American Presbyterianism, see Charles See also:Hodge, Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, 1706–1788 (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1839–1840) ; Records of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America from 1706 to 1788 (ibid., 1841); Richard See also:Webster, History of the Presbyterian Church in America (ibid., 1858) ; E. H. Gillett, History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (2nd ed., ibid., 1873) ; C. A. Briggs, American Presbyterianism (New York, 1885). There is a good bibliography on pp. xi–xxxi of R. E. See also:Thompson's History of the Presbyterian Churches in the United States (ibid., 1895), vol. vi. of the American Church History See also:Series; in the same series in vol. xi. are sketches of " The United Presbyterians," by J. B. Scouller, " The Cumberland Presbyterians," by R. N. See also:Foster, and " The Southern Presbyterians," by Thomas C. 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