TRIBES IN See also:

• MADAGASCAR

Both Egyptians and Carthaginians made attempts to reach the unknown parts of the continent by See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

To See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Invading first Egypt, an Arab See also:

• HOST

Eventually the See also:

• TURKS

Portugal, invade the however, suffered a crushing defeat in 1578 at al Kasr See also:

• BARBARY

Numerous forts and trading stations were established, the earliest being Sao Jorge da See also:

• MINA, FRANCISCO ESPOZ Y (1781-1836)

They appear to have made no See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

In 1663 the Portuguese, who had outstayed their welcome, were expelled from the Abyssinian dominions. At this time Portuguese influence on the See also:

• ZANZIBAR

Discovery of the Guinea Coast—Rise of the slave trade. in Africa. the securance of trade rather than territorial acquisitions. In this century the slave trade reached its highest development, the trade in gold, ivory, See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

Park, on a second journey in 1805, passed Timbuktu and descended the Niger to See also:

• BUSSA

The discovery in 1830 of the mouth of the Niger by Clapperton's servant Lander, already mentioned, had been preceded by the journeys of See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

One of the first to attempt to fill up the remaining See also:

• BLANK (from the Fr. blanc, white)

The close of the European conflicts with the battle of See also:

• WATERLOO

In 1864 another Nile explorer, See also:

• SAMUEL

The finding, in 186g, of See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

Between 1815 and 185o, as has been shown above, the British government devoted much energy, not always informed by knowledge, 'to western and southern Africa. In both directions Great Britain had met with much discouragement; on the west coast, disease, death, decaying trade and useless conflicts with savage foes had been the normal experience; in the south recalcitrant Boers and hostile See also:

• KAFFIRS (Arabic Kafir, an unbeliever)

In addition Ismail had conquered See also:

• DARFUR

Of these See also:

• UGANDA

To the two causes mentioned must be added others. Great Britain and Portugal, when they found their interests threatened, bestirred themselves, while Italy also conceived it necessary to become an African power. Great Britain awoke to the need for action too See also:

• LATE

~,ron.y ``o CaOary Is {° French %,s y f, See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

But these conflicting ambitions could not all be realized, and Germany succeeded in preventing Great Britain obtaining a continuous band of British territory from south to north,while Great Britain, by excluding France from the upper Nile valley, dispelled the French dream of an empire from west to east. King Leopold's ambitions have already been indicated. The part of the continent to which from the first he directed his energies was the equatorial region. In See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

At first the Association devoted itself to sending expeditions to the great central lakes from the east coast; but failure, more or less complete, attended its efforts in this direction, and it was not until the return of Stanley, in See also:

• JANUARY

He had returned to Africa at the beginning of 188o, and while the agents of King Leopold were making treaties and founding stations along the southern See also:

• BANK

Great Britain had never, however, admitted this claim, and south of the Congo had declined to recognize Portuguese possessions as extending north of See also:

• AMBRIZ

In the southern See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

In the interior of South Africa the year 1884 witnessed the beginning of that final See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

The fact appears to be that British statesmen failed to understand the change that had come over Germany. They believed that Prince Bismarck would never give his See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

By this time Luderitz had extended his acquisitions southwards to the Orange river, which had been declared by the British government to be the northern frontier of Cape Colony. Both at the Cape and in England it was now realized that Germany had broken away from her former purely continental policy, and, when too late, the Cape See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

It was to these latter places that Nachtigal turned his attention. The See also:

• NET

In this See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

In 1881 .a French See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

They proposed to land on the mainland opposite Zanzibar, and The to conclude treaties in the back country with native German chiefs placing their territories under German See also:

• PRO

Before doing so, however, the international agreements which determined in the main the limits of the possessions of the various powers may be set forth. They are : I. The agreement of the 1st of July 1890 between Great Britain and Germany defining their spheres of influence in East, West and South-West Africa. This agreement was the most comprehensive of all the " deals " in African territory, and included in return for the recognition of a British protectorate over Zanzibar the cession of See also:

• HELIGOLAND (Ger. Helgoland)

The Anglo-French convention of the 14th of June 1898, for the delimitation of the possessions of the two countries west of Lake Chad, with the supplementary declaration of the 21st of March 1899 whereby France recognized the upper Nile valley as in the British sphere of influence. Coming now to a more detailed consideration of the operations of the powers, the growth of the Congo Free State, which occupied, geographically, a central position, may serve as The the starting-point for the story of the partition after growth of the Berlin conference. In the notification to the the Congo powers of the 1st of August 1885, the boundaries of the state. Free State were set out in considerable detail. The limits thus determined resulted partly from agreements made with France, Germany and Portugal, and partly from treaties with native chiefs. The state acquired the north bank of the Congo from Africa. residents at Zanzibar, the three young pioneers crossed to the mainland, and on the loth of November, while the diplomatists assembled at Berlin were solemnly discussing the rules which were to govern the game of partition, the first " treaty " was signed at Mbuzini, and the German flag raised for the first time in East Africa. Italy had also obtained a footing on the African continent before the meeting of the Berlin conference. The Rubattino Steamship Company as far back as 1870 had bought the See also:

• PORT

The first government to " recognize 1884-85. Spain, the United States, France, Great Britain, Italy, Holland, Portugal, Russia, See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

In 1895 an See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

His ambition involved the state in the struggle between Great Britain and France for the upper Nile. To understand the situation it is necessary to remember the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

With these upper Nile. strong inducements France set steadily to work to consolidate her position on the tributary streams of the upper Congo basin, preparatory to crossing into the valley of the upper Nile. Mean-while a similar advance was being made from the Congo Free State northwards and eastwards. King Leopold had two See also:

• OBJECTS

At the same time the Congo Free State leased to Great Britain a See also:

• STRIP

On the 1st of March in the following year he left Brazzaville, and began a journey which all but plunged Great Britain and France into war. The difficulties which Captain Marchand had to overcome were mainly those connected with transport. In October 1897 the expedition reached the banks of the See also:

• SUE, EUGENE [JosEPH MARIE] (1804—1857)

On the 2nd of September 1898 Khartum was captured, and the khalifa's army dispersed. It was then that news reached the Anglo- Egyptian See also:

• COMMANDER

This step he was encouraged to take by the assertion of Lord Salisbury, in his capacity as secretary of state for foreign affairs during the negotiations with France concerning Fashoda, that the lease to King Leopold was still in full force. But the assertion was made simply as a declaration of British right to dispose of the territory, and the sovereign of the Congo State found that there was no disposition in Great Britain to allow the Bahr-el-Ghazal to fall into his hands. Long and fruitless negotiations ensued. The king at length (1904) sought to force a settlement by sending armed forces into the province. See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

Thus Portuguese possessions on the west coast extended from the Congo to the mouth of the See also:

• KUNENE

S. See also:

• MOFFAT
• MOFFAT, ROBERT (1795-1883)

Disputes with the Portuguese ensued, and there were several frontier incidents which for a time embittered the relations between the two countries. Meanwhile, north of the Zambezi, the Portuguese were making desperate but futile attempts to repair the neglect Anglo- of centuries by hastily organized expeditions and the Porto- hoisting of flags. In 1888 an attempt to close the See also:

• GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Gast, and Swed. gust; cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a stranger, hence enemy; cf. " host " )
• GUEST, EDWIN (1800–188o)

(afterwards Sir. Harry) See also:

• JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1803–1862)
• JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1849-1888)
• JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH (1804-1871)
• JOHNSTON, ARTHUR (1587-1641)
• JOHNSTON, J
• JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (1807-1891)
• JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON (1858- )

In October the abandonment of the convention was accepted by the new Portuguese See also:

• MINISTRY

On the 14th of May a formal protectorate was declared over Nyasaland, including the Shire highlands and a belt of territory extending along the whole of the western See also:

• SHORE

In October 1886 the British government the Dutch made an agreement with the New Republic, a small Republics. community of Boer farmers who had in 1884–85 seized part of Zululand and set up a government of their own, defining the frontier between the New Republic and Zululand; but in July 1888 the New Republic was incorporated in the South African Republic. In a convention of July-August ago the British government and the government of the South African Republic confirmed the independence of See also:

• SWAZILAND (native name Pungwane)

The sultan himself claimed that it extended as far as Lake Tanganyika, but the claim did not rest on any very solid ground of effective occupation. The little-known region of the Great Lakes had for some time attracted the attention of the men who were directing the colonial movement in Germany; and, as has been stated, a small band of pioneers actually landed on the mainland opposite Zanzibar in November 1884, and made their first " treaty " with the chief of Mbuzini on the 19th of that See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

See also:

• MALET, LUCAS

But before this occurred the German government had succeeded in extracting an acknowledgment of the validity of the earlier treaties from the sultan of Zanzibar. Early in August a powerful German See also:

• SQUADRON

The sultan's dominions having been thus truncated, Germany associated herself with the recognition of the " independence " of Zanzibar in which France and Great Britain had joined in 1862. The effect of this agreement was to define the spheres of influence of the two countries as far as Victoria Nyanza, but it provided no limit westwards, and left the country north of the Tana river, in which Germany had already acquired some interests near the coast, open for fresh annexations. The conclusion of the agreement immediately stimulated the enterprise both of the- German East African Company, to which Peters's earlier treaties had been transferred, and of the British capitalists to whom reference had been made in Lord Granville's despatch. The German East African Company was incorporated by imperial charter in March 1887, and the British capitalists formed themselves into the British East Africa Association, and on the 24th of May 1887 obtained, through the good offices of Sir William Mackinnon, Lord Granville's complais- ance towards Germany. a concession of the ro-miles strip of coast from the Umba river in the south to Kipini in the north. The British association further sought to extend its rights in the sphere reserved to British influence by making treaties with the native chiefs be-See also:

• HIND

The British company had sent caravans into the interior to survey the country, to make treaties with the native chiefs and to report on the commercial and agricultural possibilities. One of these had gone up the Tana river. But another and a rival expedition was proceeding along the northern bank of this same river. Karl Peters, whose energy cannot be denied, whatever may be thought of his methods, set out with an armed See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

On See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

It ren- Adeffineri.: d dered quite valueless Peters's treaty with Mwanga and his See also:

• PROMENADE

By 1888 Italian influence had been extended from See also:

• RAS

On the 15th of April 1891 a further agreement fixed the northern limit of the Italian sphere from Ras Kasar on the Red Sea to the point on the Blue Nile just mentioned. By this agreement Italy was to have the right temporarily to occupy See also:

• KASSALA

To facilitate her communications with the interior, Italy also secured from the British government the lease of a small area of land immediately to the north of Kismayu. In British Somaliland the frontier fixed by agreement with Italy in 1894 was modified, in so far as it marched with Abyssinian territory, by an agreement which Sir See also:

• RENNELL, JAMES (1742-1830)

From the international point of view the British position in Egypt was strengthened by the Anglo-French declaration of the 8th of April 1904. For some time previously there had been a movement on both sides of the Channel in favour of The the settlement of a number of important questions See also:

• ANA

In Tunisia the work of strengthening the protectorate established in 1881 had gone steadily forward; but it was in Algeria that the extension of French influence had been most marked. The movement of expansion southwards was inevitable. With the progress of exploration it became increasingly evident that the Sahara constituted no insurmountable barrier between the French possessions in North and West Central Africa. But France had not only the hope of placing Algeria in touch with the Sudan to spur her forward. To consolidate her position in North-West Africa she desired to make French influence supreme in Morocco. The relations between the two countries did not favour the realization of that ambition. The advance southwards of the French forces of occupation evoked loud protests from the Moorish government, particularly with regard to the occupation in 1900-1901 of the See also:

• TUAT

It was in these circumstances that in the Anglo-French declaration of April 1904 the British government recognized " that it appertains to France, more particularly as a power whose dominions are conterminous for a great distance with those of Morocco, to preserve order in that country, and to provide assistance for the purpose of all administrative, economic, financial and military reforms which it may require." Both parties to the declaration, " inspired by their feeling of sincere friendship for Spain, take into special consideration the interests which that country derives from her geographical position and from her territorial possessions on the Moorish coast of the Mediterranean. In regard to these interests the French government will come to an understanding with the Spanish government." The understanding thus foreshadowed was reached later in the same year, Spain securing a sphere of interest on the Mediterranean coast. In pursuance of the policy marked out in the Anglo-French declaration, France was seeking to strengthen her influence in Morocco when in 1905 the attitude of Germany seriously affected her position. On the 8th of July France secured from the German government formal " recognition of the situation created for France in Morocco by the contiguity of a vast extent of territory of Algeria and the Sharifan empire, and by the special relations resulting therefrom between the two adjacent countries, as well as by the special interest for France, due to this fact, that order should reign in the Sharifan Empire." Finally, in January-April 1906, a conference of the powers was held at See also:

• ALGECIRAS, or ALGEZIRAS

By this document some 70,000 sq. m. of the western Sahara were recognized as Spanish. The same agreement settled a long-See also:

• STANDING

In Cameroon Germany found herself with Great Britain for a neighbour to the north, and with France as her southern neighbour on the Gabun river. The utmost activity was dis- played in making treaties with native chiefs, and in securing as wide a range of coast for German enterprise as was possible. After various provisional agreements had been concluded between Great Britain and Germany, a " provisional line of demarcation " was adopted in the famous agreement of the 1st of July 1890, starting from the head of the Rio del Rey See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

But to the east German explorers were crossing the track of French explorers from the northern bank of the See also:

• UBANGI

On the west the Togoland frontier on the coast was fixed in July 1886 by British and German commissioners at I® ro' E. longitude, and its extension towards the interior laid down for a short distance. A curious feature in the history of its prolongation was the establishment in 1888 of a neutral zone wherein neither power was to seek to acquire protectorates nor exclusive influence. It was not until November 1899 that, as part of the See also:

• SAMOA

In June 1882 and in August 1889 provisional agreements were made with France fixing the western and northern limits of Sierra Leone, and commissioners were appointed to trace the line of demarcation agreed upon by the two governments. But the commissioners failed to agree, and on the 21st of January 1895 a fresh agreement was made, the boundary being subsequently traced by a mixed commission. Sierra Leone, as now definitely constituted, has a coast-line of about 18o m. and a maximum extension towards the interior of some 200 M. At the date of the Berlin conference the present colonies of Southern Nigeria and the Gold Coast constituted a single colony under the title of the Gold Coast colony, but on the 13th of January 1886 the territory comprised under that title was erected into two separate colonies—Lagos and the Gold Coast (the name of the former being changed in February 1906 to the colony of Southern Nigeria). The coast limits of the new Gold Coast colony were declared to extend from 5° W. to 2° E., but these limits were subsequently curtailed by agreements with France and Germany. The arrangements that fixed the eastern frontier of the Gold Coast colony and its hinterland have already been stated in connexion with German Togoland. On the western frontier it See also:

• MARCHES, THE (It. Le Marche)

But the great Fula states of the central Sudan were still outside European influence, and this fact did not See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

of July 1886 the charter was granted, and the company became " The Royal Niger Company, chartered and limited." In June of the previous year a British protectorate had been proclaimed over the whole of the coast from the Rio del Rey to the Lagos frontier, and as already stated, on the 13th of January 1886 the Lagos settlements had been separated from the Gold Coast and erected into a separate colony. It may be convenient to state here that the western boundary of Lagos with "French territory (Dahomey) was determined in the Anglo-French agreement of the loth of August 1889, " as far as the 9th degree of north latitude, where it shall stop." Thus both in the Gold Coast hinterland and in the Lagos hinterland a See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

In 1892 an event happened which had an important bearing on the future course of the dispute. After a troublesome war with Behanzin, king of French as as to the native state of Dahomey, France annexed some Timbuktu. portion of Dahomeyan territory on the coast, and declared a protectorate over the rest of the kingdom. Thus was removed the barrier which had up to that time prevented France from pushing her way Nigerwards from her possessions on the Slave Coast, as well as from the upper Niger and the Ivory Coast. Henceforth her progress from all these directions was rapid, and in particular Timbuktu was occupied in the last days of 1893. In 1894 it appears to have been suddenly realized in France that, for the development of the vast regions which she was placing under her protection in West Africa, it was extremely desirable that she should obtain free access to the navigable portions of the Niger, if not on the left bank, from which she was excluded by the Say-Barrua agreement, then on the right bank, where the frontier had still to be fixed by international agreement. In the neighbourhood of Bussa there is a long stretch of the river so impeded by rapids that navigation is practically impossible, except in small boats and at considerable See also:

• RISK

The French expeditions, which were in great strength, did not hesitate on their arrival to compel the king to execute fresh treaties with France, and with these in their possession they returned to Dahomey. Shortly afterwards a fresh act of aggression was committed. On the 13th of February 1895 a French officer, Commandant Toutee, arrived on the right bank of the Niger opposite Bajibo and built a fort. His presence there was notified to the Royal Niger Company, who protested to the British government against this invasion of their territory. Lord Rosebery, who was then foreign minister, at once made inquiries in Paris, and received the assurance that Commandant Toutee was " a private traveller." Eventually Commandant Toutee was ordered to withdraw, and the fort was occupied by the Royal Niger Company's troops. Commandant Toutee subsequently published the official instructions from the French government under which he had acted. It was thought that the recognition of the British claims, involved in the withdrawal of Commandant Toutee, had marked the final abandonment by France of the attempt to establish herself on the navigable portions of the Niger below Bussa, but in 1897 the attempt was renewed in the most determined manner. In February of that year a French force suddenly occupied Bussa, and this act was quickly followed by the occupation of Gomba and Illo higher up the river. In November 1897 Nikki was occupied. The situation on the Niger had so obviously been outgrowing the capacity of a chartered company that for some time before these occurrences the assumption of responsibility for the whole of the Niger region The by the imperial authorities had been practically de-Franco- cided on; and early in 1898 Lugard was sent out to British the Niger with a number of imperial officers to raise a settlement local force in preparation for the contemplated change. of I&98. The advance of the French forces from the south and west was the See also:

• SIGNAL

The situation thus created was extremely serious. The British and French flags were flying in close proximity, in some cases in the same See also:

• VILLAGE

The western boundary of the Gold Coast was prolonged along the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

In French West Africa don of the changes in the internal frontiers have been numerous a d British and important. The coast colonies have all been in- French creased in See also:

• SIZE

None of these islands, with the exception of the Zanzibar group, have, however, materially affected the partition of the continent, and they need not be enumerated in the table which follows. But the important island of Madagascar stands in a different See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

BRITISH- Sq. m. Cape Colony 276,995 Natal and Zeluland • 35,371 See also:

• BASUTOLAND (officially The Territory of Basutoland")

51,000 French West Africa- 1,931,000 Senegal . . 74,000 French Guinea . 107,000 Ivory Coast 129,000 Dahomey . 40,000 Upper Senegal and Niger, and Maur- itania including French West African Sahara) . . 1,581,000 French Congo . . . 700,000 French Somaliland 12,000 Madagascar . , . 227,950 Total French Africa . 3,866,950 GERMAN- 364,000 East Africa • South-West Africa . • 322,450 Cameroon . 190,000 Togoland .

• 33,700 Total German Africa 910,150 ITALIAN- 60,000 Eritrea Italian Somaliland . . 140,000 Total Italian Africa, 200,000 PORTUGUESE- 14,000 Guinea . West Africa 480,000 East Africa • 293,500 Total Portuguese Africa 787,500 SPANISH- .70,000 Rio de Oro Muni River Settlements • 9,800 Total Spanish Africa 79,800 BELGIAN- 900,000 Congo State TURKISH- 400,000 Tripoli and Benghazi .