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ORDERS OF

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Originally appearing in Volume V15, Page 868 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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ORDERS OF See also:

KNIGHTHOOD When orders ceased to be See also:fraternities and became more and more marks of favour and a means of recognizing meritorious ' Lecoy de la See also:Marche (Chaire francaise au moyen See also:age, 2nd ed., p. 387) gives many instances to prove that "al chevalerie, au xiii' siecle, est deja sur son declin." But already about I16o See also:Peter of See also:Blois had written, " The so-called See also:order of knighthood is nowadays See also:mere disorder " (ordo militum nunc est, ordinerh non tenere. Ep. xciv. : the whole See also:letter should be read) ; and, See also:half a See also:century earlier still, See also:Guibert of Nogent gives an equally unflattering picture of See also:con-temporary See also:chivalry in his De vita sua (See also:Migne, Pat. See also:Lat., tom. clvi.).services to the See also:Crown and See also:country, the See also:term "orders" became loosely applied to the insignia and decorations themselves. Thus " orders," irrespective of the See also:title or other specific designation they confer, fall in See also:Great See also:Britain generally into three See also:main categories, according as the recipients are made " knights See also:grand See also:cross," " knights See also:commander," or " companions." In some orders the classes are more numerous, as in the Royal Victorian, for instance, which has five, numerous See also:foreign orders a like number, some six, while the See also:Chinese " See also:Dragon " boasts no less than eleven degrees. Generally speaking, the insignia of the " knights grand cross " consist of a See also:star worn on the See also:left See also:breast and a badge, usually some See also:form either of the cross See also:page or of the Maltese cross, worn suspended from a ribbon over the See also:shoulder or, in certain cases, on days of high ceremonial from a See also:collar. The " commanders " See also:wear the badge from a ribbon See also:round the See also:neck, and the star on the breast; the " companions " have no star and wear the badge from a narrow ribbon at the See also:button-hole. Orders may, again, be grouped according as they are (I) See also:PRIME ORDERS OF CHRISTENDOM, conferred upon an exclusive class only. Here belong, inter alia, the well-known orders of the Garter (See also:England), See also:Golden Fleece (See also:Austria and See also:Spain), Annunziata (See also:Italy), See also:Black See also:Eagle (See also:Prussia), St See also:Andrew (See also:Russia), See also:Elephant (See also:Denmark) and See also:Seraphim (See also:Sweden). Of these the first three only, which are usually held to See also:rank inter se in the order given, are historically identified with chivalry. (2) See also:FAMILY ORDERS, bestowed upon members of the royal or princely class, or upon humbler individuals according to classes, in respect of " See also:personal " services rendered to the family.

To this See also:

category belong such orders as the Royal Victorian and the See also:Hohenzollern (Prussia). (3) ORDERS OF MERIT, whether military, See also:civil or See also:joint orders. Such have, as a See also:rule, at least three, oftener five classes, and here belong such as the Order of the See also:Bath (See also:British), Red Eagle (Prussia), See also:Legion of See also:Honour (See also:France). There are also certain orders, such as the recently instituted Order of Merit (British), and the Pour le Merite (Prussia), which have but one class, all members being on an equality of rank within the order. Of the three great military and religious orders, branches survive of two, the See also:Teutonic Order (Der hohe deutsche See also:Ritter Orden or Marianen Orden) and the Knights of St See also:John of See also:Jerusalem (Johanniter Orden, Malteser Orden), for the See also:history of which and the See also:present See also:state see TEUTONIC ORDER and ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF. Great Britain.—The history and constitution of the " most See also:noble " Order of the Garter has been treated above. The See also:officers of the order are five—the See also:prelate, See also:chancellor, registrar, See also:king of arms and See also:usher—the first, third and fifth having been attached to it from the commencement, while the See also:fourth was added by See also:Henry V. and the second by See also:Edward IV. The prelate has always been the See also:bishop of See also:Winchester; the chancellor was formerly the bishop of See also:Salisbury, but is now the bishop of See also:Oxford; the registrarship and the deanery of See also:Windsor have been See also:united since the reign of See also:Charles I.; the king of arms, whose duties were in the beginning discharged by Windsor See also:herald, is Garter See also:Principal King of Arms; and the usher is the See also:gentleman usher of the Black See also:Rod. The See also:chapel of the order is St See also:George's Chapel, Windsor. The insignia of the order are illustrated on See also:Plate I. The " most See also:ancient " Order of the See also:Thistle was founded by See also:James II. in 1687, and dedicated to St Andrew. It consisted of the See also:sovereign and eight knights companions, and See also:fell into See also:abeyance at the Revolution of 1688.

In 1703 it was revived by See also:

Queen See also:Anne, when it was ordained to consist of the sovereign and 12 knights companions, the number being in-creased to 16 by See also:statute in 1827. The officers of the order are the See also:dean, the secretary, See also:Lyon King of Arms and the gentleman usher of the See also:Green Rod. The chapel, in St See also:Giles's, See also:Edinburgh, was begun in 1909. The star, badge and ribbon of the order are illustrated on Plate II., See also:figs. 5 and 6. The collar is formed of thistles, alternating with sprigs of See also:rue, and the See also:motto is Nemo me impune lacessit. The " most illustrious " Order of St See also:Patrick was instituted by George III. in 1788, to consist of the sovereign, the See also:lord See also:lieutenant of See also:Ireland as grand See also:master and 15 knights companions, enlarged to 22 in .1833. The chancellor of the order is the See also:chief secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland, and the king of arms is See also:Ulster King of Arms; Black Rod is the usher. The chapel is in St Patrick's See also:Cathedral, See also:Dublin. The star, badge and ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 7 and 8. The collar is formed of alternate See also:roses with red and See also:white leaves, and See also:gold harps linked by gold knots; the badge is suspended from a See also:harp surmounted by an imperial jewelled crown.

The motto is Quis separabit? The " most See also:

honourable " Order of the Bath was established by George I. in 1725, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master and 36 knights companions. This was a pretended revival of an order supposed to have been created by Henry IV. at his See also:coronation in 1399. But, as has been shown in the -preceding See also:section, no such order existed. Knights of the Bath, although they were allowed See also:precedence before knights bachelors, were merely knights bachelors who were knighted with more elaborate ceremonies than others and on certain great occasions. In 1815 the order was instituted, in three classes, " to commemorate the auspicious termination of the See also:long and arduous contest in which the See also:Empire has been engaged "; and in 1847 the civil knights commanders and companions were added. Exclusive of the sovereign, royal princes and distinguished foreigners, the order is limited to See also:J5 military and 27 civil knights grand cross, 145 military and sob civil knights commanders, and 705 military and 298 civil companions. The officers of the order are the dean (the dean of See also:Westminster), Bath King of Arms, the registrar, and the usher of the See also:Scarlet Rod. The ribbon and badges of the knights grand cross (civil and military) and the stars are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The " most distinguished " Order of St See also:Michael and St George was founded by the See also:prince See also:regent, afterwards George IV., in 1818, in See also:commemoration of the British See also:protectorate of the Ionian Islands, " for natives of the Ionian Islands and of the See also:island of See also:Malta and its dependencies, and for such other subjects of his See also:majesty as may hold high and confidential situations in the Mediterranean." By statute of 1832 the lord high See also:commissioner of the Ionian Islands was to be the grand master, and the order was directed to consist of 15 knights grand crosses, 20 knights commanders and 25 cavaliers or companions. After the repudiation of the British protectorate of the Ionian Islands, the order was placed on a new basis, and by letters patent of 1868 and 1877 it was extended and provided for such of " the natural See also:born subjects of the Crown of the United See also:Kingdom as may have held or shall hold high and confidential offices within her majesty's colonial possessions, and in See also:reward for services rendered to the crown in relation to the foreign affairs of the Empire." It is now (by the enlargement of 1902) limited to 10o knights grand cross, of whom the first or principal is grand master, exclusive of extra and honorary members, of 300 knights commanders and 600 companions.

The officers are the prelate, chancellor, registrar, secretary and officer of arms. The chapel of the order, in St See also:

Paul's Cathedral, was dedicated in 1906. The badge of the knights grand cross and the ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 9 and 10. The star of the knights grand cross is a seven-rayed star of See also:silver with a small See also:ray of gold between each, in the centre is a red St George's cross bearing a medallion of St Michael encountering Satan, surrounded by a See also:blue See also:fillet with the motto Auspicium melioris aevi. The Order of St Michael and St George ranks between the " most exalted " Order of the Star of See also:India and the " most eminent " Order of the See also:Indian Empire, of both of which the See also:viceroy of India for the See also:time being is ex officio grand master. Of these the first was instituted in 1861 and enlarged in 1876. 1897 and 1903, in three classes, knights grand commanders, knights commanders and companions, and the second was established (for " companions " only) in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, 1892, 1897 and 1903, also in the same three classes, incommemoration of Queen See also:Victoria's See also:assumption of the imperial See also:style and title of the Empress of India. The badges, stars and See also:ribbons of the knights grand commanders of the two orders are illustrated on Plate III., figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6. The collar of the Star of India is composed of alternate links of the See also:lotus See also:flower, red and white roses and See also:palm branches enamelled on gold, with an imperial crown in the centre; that of the Indian Empire is composed of elephants, peacocks and Indian roses. The Royal Victorian Order was instituted by Queen Victoria on the 25th of See also:April 1896, and conferred for personal services rendered to her majesty and her successors on the See also:throne.

It consists of the sovereign, chancellor, secretary and five classes—knights grand commanders, knights commanders, commanders and members of the fourth and fifth classes, the distinction between these last divisions lying in the badge and in the precedence enjoyed by the members. The knights of this order rank in their respective classes immediately after those of the Indian Empire, and its See also:

numbers are unlimited. The badge, star and ribbon of the knights grand cross are illustrated on Plate III., figs. 1 and 2. To the class of orders without the titular appellation " See also:knight " belongs the Order of Merit, founded by King Edward VII. on the occasion of his coronation. The order is founded on the lines of the Prussian Ordre pour le Write (see below), yet more com- prehensive, including those who have gained distinction in the military and See also:naval services of the Empire, and such as have made themselves a great name in the See also:fields of See also:science, See also:art and literature. The number of British members has been fixed at twenty-four, with the addition of such foreign persons as the sovereign shall appoint. The names of the first recipients were: See also:Earl See also:Roberts, See also:Viscount See also:Wolseley, Viscount See also:Kitchener, See also:Sir Henry See also:Keppel, Sir Edward See also:Seymour, Lord See also:Lister, Lord See also:Rayleigh, Lord See also:Kelvin, John See also:Morley, W. E. H. See also:Lecky, G. F.

See also:

Watts and Sir See also:William See also:Huggins. The only foreign recipients up to 1910 were See also:Field Marshals See also:Yamagata and See also:Oyama and See also:Admiral See also:Togo. A See also:lady, See also:Miss See also:Florence See also:Nightingale, received the order in 1907. The badge is a cross of red and blue See also:enamel surmounted by an imperial crown; the central blue medallion bears the inscription " For Merit " in gold, and is surrounded by a See also:wreath of See also:laurel. The badge of the military and naval members bears two crossed swords in the angles of the cross. The ribbon is garter blue and See also:crimson and is worn round the neck. The Distinguished Service Order, an order of military merit, was founded on the 6th of See also:September 1886 by Queen Victoria, its See also:object being to recognize the See also:special services of officers in the See also:army and See also:navy. Its numbers are unlimited, and its designation the letters D.S.O. It consists of one class only, who take precedence immediately after the 4th class of the Royal Victorian Order. The badge is a white and gold cross with a red centre bearing the imperial crown surrounded by a laurel wreath. The ribbon is red edged with blue. The Imperial Service Order was likewise instituted on the 26th of See also:June 1902, and finally revised in 1908, to commemorate King Edward's coronation, and is specially designed as a recognition of faithful and meritorious services rendered to the British Crown by the administrative members of the civil service in various parts of the Empire, and is to consist of companions only.

The numbers are limited to 475, of whom 25o belong to the See also:

home and 225 to the civil services of the colonies and protectorates (Royal See also:Warrant, June 1909). See also:Women as well as men are eligible. The members of the order have the distinction of adding the letters after their names. In precedence the order ranks after the Distinguished Service Order. The badge is a gold medallion bearing the royal See also:cipher and the words " For Faithful Service " in blue; for men it rests on a silver star, for women it is surrounded by a silver wreath. The ribbon is one blue between two crimson stripes. In addition to the above, there are two British orders confined to ladies. The Royal Order of Victoria and See also:Albert, which was instituted in 1862, is a purely See also:court distinction. It consists of four classes, and it has as designation the letters V.A. The Imperial Order of the Crown of India is conferred for like purposes as the Order of the Indian Empire. Its See also:primary object is to recognize the services of ladies connected with the court of India. The letters C.I. are its designation.

The sovereign's permission by royal warrant is necessary before a British subject can receive a foreign order of knighthood. For other decorations, see under MEDALS. The Golden Fleece (La Toison d'Or) ranks historically and in distinction as one of the great knightly orders of See also:

Europe. It is now divided into two branches, of Austria and Spain. It was founded on the loth of See also:January, 1429/30 by See also:Philip the See also:Good, See also:duke of See also:Burgundy, on the See also:day of his See also:marriage with See also:Isabella of See also:Portugal at See also:Bruges, in her honour and dedicated to the Virgin and St Andrew. No certain origin can be given for the name. It seems to have been in dispute even in the See also:early history of the order. Four different See also:sources have been suggested; the classical myth of the voyage of See also:Jason and the See also:Argonauts for the golden fleece, the scriptural See also:story of See also:Gideon, the See also:staple See also:trade of See also:Flanders in See also:wool, and the fleece of golden See also:hair of See also:Marie de Rambrugge, the duke's See also:mistress. See also:Motley (Rise of Dutch See also:Rep., i. 48) says: " What could be more See also:practical and more devout than the conception? Did not the See also:Lamb of See also:God, suspended at each knight's See also:heart, symbolize at once the woollen fabrics to which so much of Flemish See also:wealth and Burgundian See also:power was owing, and the See also:gentle humility of See also:Christ which was ever to characterize the order?" At its constitution the number of the knights was limited to 24, exclusive of the grand master, the sovereign. The members were to be gentilshommes de nom el d'armes et sans reproche, not knights of any other order, and vowed to join their sovereign in the See also:defence of the See also:Catholic faith, the See also:protection of See also:Holy See also:Church, and the upholding of virtue and good morals.

The sovereign undertook to consult the knights before embarking on a See also:

war, all disputes between the knights were to be settled by the order, at each See also:chapter the deeds of each knight were held in See also:review, and punishments and admonitions were dealt out to offenders; to this the sovereign was expressly subject. Thus we find. that the See also:emperor Charles V. accepted humbly the See also:criticism of the knights of the Fleece on his over-centralization of the See also:government and the wasteful personal See also:attention to details (E. A. See also:Armstrong, Charles V., 1902, ii. 373) The knights could claim as of right to be tried by their See also:fellows on charges of See also:rebellion, See also:heresy and See also:treason, and Charles V. conferred on the order exclusive See also:jurisdiction over all crimes committed by the knights. The See also:arrest of the offender had to be by warrant signed by at least six knights, and during the See also:process of See also:charge and trial he remained not in See also:prison but thins l'aimable compagnie du dit ordre. It was in See also:defiance of this right that See also:Alva refused the claim of See also:Counts See also:Egmont and See also:Horn to be tried by the knights of the Fleece in 1568. During the 16th century the order frequently acted as a consultative See also:body in the state; thus in 1539 and 1540 Charles See also:summons the knights with the See also:council of state and the privy council to decide what steps should be taken in See also:face of the revolt of See also:Ghent (See also:Arm-strong, op. cit., i. 302), in 1562 See also:Margaret of See also:Parma, the regent, summons them to See also:Brussels to debate the dangerous See also:condition of the provinces (Motley, i. 48), and they were present at the See also:abdication of Charles in the great See also:hall at Brussels in 1555. The history of the order and its subsequent See also:division into the two branches of Austria and Spain may be briefly summarized. By the marriage of See also:Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy to See also:Maximilian, See also:archduke of Austria, 1477, the grand mastership of the order came to the See also:house of See also:Habsburg and, with the See also:Netherlands provinces, to Spain in 1504 on the See also:accession of Philip, Maximilian's son, to See also:Castile.

On the extinction of the Habsburg See also:

dynasty in Spain by the See also:death of Charles II. in 1700 the grand-mastership, which had been filled by the See also:kings of Spain after the loss of the Netherlands, was claimed by the emperor Charles VI., and he instituted the order in See also:Vienna in 1713. Protests were made at various times by Philip V., but the question has never been finally decided by treaty, and the See also:Austrian and See also:Spanish branches have continued as See also:independent orders ever since as the principal order of knighthood in the respective states. It may be noticed that while the Austrian See also:branch excludes any other than See also:Roman Catholics from the order, the Spanish Fleece may be granted to Protestants. The badges of the two branches vary slightly in detail, more particularly in the See also:attachment of See also:fire-stones (fusils or furisons) and steels by which the fleece is attached to the ribbon of the collar. The Spanish form is given on Plate IV., fig. 2. The collar is composed of alternate links of furisons and See also:double steels interlaced to form the letter B for Burgundy. A magnificent See also:exhibition of See also:relics, portraits of knights and other See also:objects connected with the order of the Golden Fleece was held at Bruges in 1907. The chief history of the order is See also:Baron de Reiffenberg's Histoire de l'Ordre de la Toison d'Or (183o); see also an See also:article by Sir J. See also:Balfour Paul, Lyon King of Arms, in the Scottish See also:Historical Review (See also:July 1908). Austria-See also:Hungary.—The following are the principal orders other than that of the Golden Fleece (supra). The Order of St See also:Stephen of Hungary, the royal Hungarian order, founded in 1764 by the empress Maria See also:Theresa, consists of the grand master (the sovereign), 20 knights grand cross, 30 knights commanders and 5o knights.

The badge is a green enamelled cross with gold See also:

borders, suspended from the Hungarian crown; the red enamelled medallion in the centre of the cross bears a white patriarchal cross issuing from a coroneted green See also:mound; on either See also:side of the cross are the letters M.T. in gold, and the whole is surrounded by a white fillet with the See also:legend Publicum Meritorum Praemium. The ribbon is green with a crimson central stripe. The collar, only worn by the knights grand cross, is of gold, and consists of Hungarian crowns linked together alternately by the monograms of St Stephen, S.S., and the foundress, M.T.; the centre of the collar is formed by a flying See also:lark encircled by the motto Stringit amore. An See also:illustration of the star of the grand cross is given on Plate V. fig. 4. The Order of See also:Leopold, for civil and military service, was founded in 18o8 by the emperor See also:Francis I. in memory of his See also:father Leopold II. The three classes take precedence next after the corresponding classes of the order of St Stephen. The badge is a red enamelled cross bordered with white and gold and surmounted by the imperial crown; the red medallion in the centre bears the letters F.I.A., and on the encircling white fillet is the inscription Integritati et Merito. When conferred for service in war the cross rests on a green laurel wreath. The ribbon is scarlet with two white stripes. The collar consists of imperial crowns, the See also:initials F. and L. and See also:oak wreaths. The Order of the See also:Iron Crown, i.e. of See also:Lombardy, was founded by See also:Napoleon as king of Italy in 1809, and refounded as an Austrian order of civil and military merit in 1816 by the emperor Francis I.; the number of knights is limited to 100—20 grand cross, 30 commanders, 5o knights.

The badge consists of the double-headed imperial eagle with See also:

sword and See also:orb; below it is the jewelled iron crown of Lombardy, and above the imperial crown; on the breast of the eagle is a gold-bordered blue See also:shield with the letter F. in gold. The military decoration for war service also bears two green laurel branches. The ribbon is yellow edged with narrow blue stripes. The collar is formed of Lombard crowns, oak wreaths and the See also:monogram F. P. (Franciscus See also:Primus). The Order of Francis See also:Joseph, for personal merit of every See also:kind, was founded in 1849 by the emperor Francis Joseph I. It is of the three usual classes and is unlimited in numbers. The badge is a black and gold imperial eagle surmounted by the imperial crown. The eagle bears a red cross with a white medallion, containing the letters F. J., and to the beaks of the two heads of the eagle is attached a See also:chain on which is the legend Viribus Unitis. The ribbon is deep red.

The Order of Maria Theresa was founded by the empress Maria Theresa in 1757. It is a purely military order and is given to officers for personal distinguished conduct in the field. There are three classes. There were originally only two, grand cross and knights. The emperor Joseph II. added a commanders' class in 1765. The badge is a white cross with gold edge, in the centre a red medallion with a white gold-edged fesse, surrounded by a fillet with the inscription Fortitudini. The ribbon is red with a white central stripe, The Order of See also:

Elizabeth Theresa, also a military order for officers, was founded in 1750 by the will of Elizabeth See also:Christina, widow of the emperor Charles VI. It was renovated in 1771 by her daughter, the empress Maria Theresa. The order is limited to 21 knights in three divisions. The badge is an See also:oval star with eight points, enamelled half red and white, dependent from a gold imperial crown. The central medallion bears the initials of the founders, with the encircling inscription M. Theresa parentis See also:graham' perennem voluit.

The ribbon is black. The Order of the Starry Cross, for high-born ladies of the Roman Catholic faith who devote themselves to good See also:

works, spiritual and temporal, was founded in 1668 by the empress Eleanor, widow of the emperor See also:Ferdinand III. and See also:mother of Leopold I., to commemorate the recovery of a relic of the true cross from a dangerous fire in the imperial See also:palace at Vienna. The relic was supposed to have been peculiarly treasured by the emperor Maximilian I. and the emperor See also:Frederick III. The patroness of the order must be a princess of the imperial Austrian house. The badge is the black double-headed eagle surrounded by a blue-enamelled ornamented border, with the inscription See also:Salus et Gloria on a white fillet; the eagle bears a red See also:Greek cross with gold and blue borders. The Order of Elizabeth, also for ladies, was founded in 1898. See also:Belgium.—The Order of Leopold, for civil and military merit, was founded in 1832 by Leopold I., with four classes, a fifth being added in 1838. The badge is a white enamelled cross, with gold borders and balls, suspended from a royal crown and resting on a green laurel and oak wreath. In the centre a medallion, surrounded by a red fillet with the motto of the order, L'See also:union fait la force, bears a golden Belgian See also:lion on a black field. The ribbon is watered red. The Order of the Iron Cross, the badge of which is a black cross with gold borders, with a gold centre bearing a lion, was instituted by Leopold II. in 1867 as an order of civil merit. The military cross was instituted in 1885.

There are also the following orders instituted by Leopold II. for service in the See also:

Congo State: the Order of the See also:African Star (1888), the Royal Order of the Lion (1891) and the Congo Star (1889). See also:Bulgaria.—The Order of SS See also:Cyril and See also:Methodius was instituted in 1909 by King Ferdinand to commemorate the See also:elevation of the principality to the position of an independent kingdom. It now takes precedence of the Order of St See also:Alexander, which was founded by Prince Alexander in 1881, and reconstituted by Prince Ferdinand in 1888. There are six classes. The See also:plain white cross, suspended from the Bulgarian crown, bears the name of the See also:patron See also:saint in old See also:Cyrillic letters in the centre. Denmark.—The Order of the Elephant, one of the chief See also:European orders of knighthood, was, it is said, founded by See also:Christian I. in 1462 ; a still earlier origin has been assigned to it, but its See also:regular institution was that of Christian V. in 1693. The order, exclusive of the sovereign and his sons, is limited to 30 knights, who must be of the See also:Protestant See also:religion. The badge of the order is illustrated on Plate IV. fig. 5. The ribbon is See also:light watered blue, the collar of alternate gold elephants with blue housings and towers, the star of silver with a See also:purple medallion bearing a silver or brilliant cross surrounded by a silver laurel wreath. The motto is Magnarime pretium. The Order of the Dannebrog is, according to Danish tradition, of miraculous origin, and was founded by Valdemar II. in 1219 as a memorial of a victory over the Esthonians, won by the See also:appearance in the See also:sky of a red banner bearing a white cross.

Historically the order See also:

dates from the See also:foundation in 1671 by Christian V. at the See also:birth of his son Frederick, the statutes being published in 1693. Originally restricted to 5o knights and granted as a family or court decoration, it was reconstituted as an unlimited order of merit in 18o8 by Frederick VI.; alterations have been made in 1811 and 1864. It now consists of three classes—grand cross, commander (two grades), knight, and of one rank of See also:ordinary members (Dannebrogs maender). The badge of the order is, with See also:variations for the different classes, a white enamelled Danish cross with red and gold borders, bearing in the centre the letter W (V) and onthe fourarms the inscription Gud og Kongen (For God and King). The ribbon is white with red edging. France.—The Legion of Honour, the only order of France, and one which in its higher grades ranks in estimation with the highest European orders, was instituted by Napoleon See also:Bonaparte on the 19th of May 1802 (29 Floreal of the See also:year X.) as a See also:general military and civil order of merit. All soldiers on whom " swords of honour " had been already conferred were declared legionaries ipso facto, and all citizens after 25 years' service were declared eligible, whatever their birth, rank or religion. On See also:admission all were to swear to co-operate so far as in them See also:lay for the assertion of the principles of See also:liberty and equality. The organization as laid down by Napoleon in 1804 was as follows: Napoleon was grand master; a grand council of 7 grand officers ad-ministered the order; the order was divided into 15 " cohorts " of 7 grand officers, 20 commanders, 30 officers and 350 legionaries, and at the headquarters of the cohorts, for which the territory of France was separated into 15 divisions, were maintained hospitals for the support of the sick and infirm legionaries. Salaries (traitements) varying in each rank were attached to the order. In 18o5 the rank of "Grand Eagle " (now Grand Cross, or Grand See also:Cordon) was instituted, taking precedence of the grand officers. At the Restoration many changes were made, the old military and religious orders were restored, and the Legion of Honour, now Ordre Royale de la Legion d'Honneur, took thelowest rank.

The revolution of July 1830 restored the order to its unique See also:

place. The constitution of the order now rests on the decrees of the 16th of See also:March and 24th of See also:November 1852, the See also:law of the 25th of July 1873, the See also:decree of the 29th of See also:December 1892, and the See also:laws of the 16th of April 1895 and the 28th of January 1897, and a decree of the 26th of June 19oo. The See also:president of the See also:republic is the grand master of the order; the See also:administration is in the hands of a grand chancellor, who has a council of the order nominated by the grand 'master. The chancellery is housed in the Palais de la Legion de dHonneur, which, burnt during the See also:Commune, was rebuilt in 1878. The order consists of the five classes of grand cross (limited to 8o), grand officer (200), commander (woo), officers (4000), and See also:chevalier or knight, in which the number is unlimited. These limitations in number do not affect the foreign recipients of the order. Salaries (traitements) are attached to the military and naval recipients of the order when on the active See also:list, viz. 3000 francs for grand cross, 2000 francs for grand officers, r000 francs for commanders, 25o francs for chevaliers. The numbers of the recipients of the order sans traitement are limited through all classes. In ordinary circumstances twenty years of military, naval or civil service must have been performed before a See also:candidate can be eligible for - the rank of chevalier, and promotions can only be made after definite service in the See also:lower rank. Extraordinary service in time of war and extraordinary services in civil See also:life admit to any rank. Women have been decorated, notably See also:Rosa See also:Bonheur, Madame See also:Curie and Madame See also:Bartet.

The See also:

Napoleonic form of the grand cross and ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV, fig. 6; the cross from which the See also:drawing was made was given to King Edward VII. when prince of See also:Wales in 1863. In the present order of the See also:French Republic the symbolical See also:head of the Republic appears in the centre, and a laurel wreath replaces the imperial crown; the inscription round the medallion is Republique frangaise. Since 1805 there has existed an institution, Maison d'See also:education de la Legion d'Honneur, for the education of the daughters, granddaughters, sisters and nieces of members of the Legion of Honour. There are three houses, at Saint See also:Denis, at Ecouen and See also:Les Loges (see Dictionnaire de l'administration frangaise, by M. See also:Block and E. Magnero, 1905, s.v. " Decorations "). Among the orders swept away at the French Revolution, restored in See also:part at the Restoration, and finally abolished at the revolution of Tuly 183o were the following: The Order of St Michael was founded by See also:Louis XI: in 1469 for a limited number of knights of noble birth. Later the numbers were so much increased under Charles IX. that it became known as Le See also:Collier a toutes bites. In 1816 the order was granted for services in art and science. In view of the See also:low esteem into which the Order of St Michael had fallen, Henry III. founded in 1578 the Order of the Holy See also:Ghost (St Esprit).

The badge of the order was a white Maltese cross decorated in gold, with the gold lilies of France at the angles, in the centre a white See also:

dove with wings outstretched, the ribbon was sky blue (cordon bleu). The motto of the order was Duce et auspice. The Order of St Louis was founded by Louis XIV. in 1693 for military merit, and the Order of Military Merit by Louis XV. in 1759, originally for Protestant officers. See also:Germany.—i. See also:Anhalt. The Order of Albert the See also:Bear, a family order or Hausorden, was founded in 1836 by the See also:dukes Henry of Anhalt-Kothen, Leopold Frederick of Anhalt-See also:Dessau and Alexander Charles of Anhalt-See also:Bernburg. Changes in the constitution have been made at various dates. It now consists of five classes, grand cross, commander (2 classes) and knights (2 classes). The badge is a gold oval bearing in gold a crowned and collared bear on a crenellated See also:wall; below the See also:ring by which the badge is attached to the ribbon is a shield with the arms of the house of Anhalt, on the See also:reverse those of the house of Ascania. Round the oval is the motto Furchte Gott and folge See also:seine Befehle. The ribbon is green with two red stripes. The grand master alone wears a collar.

ii. See also:

Baden. The Order of Fidelity or See also:Loyalty (Hausorden der Treue) was instituted by William, See also:margrave of Baden-See also:Durlach in 1715, and reconstituted in 1803 by the elector Charles Frederick. There is now only one class, for princes of the reigning house, foreign sovereigns and eminent men of the state. The badge is a red enamelled cross with gold borders and double C's interlaced in the angles; in the centre a white medallion with red monogram over a green mound surmounted by the word Fidelitas in black; the cross is suspended from a ducal crown. The ribbon is See also:orange with silver edging. The military Order of Charles Frederick was founded in 1807. There are three classes. The badge is a white cross resting on a green laurel wreath, the ribbon is red with a yellow stripe bordered with white. The order is conferred for long and meritorious military service. The Order of the See also:Zahringen Lion was founded in 1812 in commemoration of the descent of the reigning house of Baden from the dukes of Zahringen. It has been reconstituted in 184o and 1877.

It now consists of five classes. The badge is a green enamel cross with gold clasps in the angles; in the central medallion an enamelled See also:

representation of the ruined See also:castle of Zahringen. The ribbon is green with two orange stripes. Since 1896 the Order of Berthold I. has been a distinct order; it was founded in 1877 as a higher class of the Zahringen Lion. iii. See also:Bavaria. The Order of St See also:Hubert, one of the See also:oldest and. most distinguished knightly orders, was founded in 1444 by duke See also:Gerhard V. of See also:Julich-See also:Berg in honour of a victory over See also:Count See also:Arnold of Egmont at Ravensberg on the 3rd of November, St Hubert's day. The knights wore a collar of golden See also:hunting horns, whence the order was also known as the Order of the Horn. Statutes were granted in 1476, but the order fell into abeyance at the extinction of the dynasty in 1609. It was revived in 1708 by the elector See also:palatine, John William of Neuberg, and its constitution was altered a't various times, its final form being given by the elector Maximilian Joseph, first king of Bavaria, in 1808. Exclusive of the sovereign and princes of the See also:blood, and foreign sovereigns and princes, it consists of twelve capitular knights of the rank of count or Freiherr. The badge of the order and the ribbon are illustrated in Plate V. fig.

3. The central medallion represents the See also:

conversion of St Hubert. The collar is composed of gold and blue enamel figures of the conversion linked by the See also:Gothic monogram I.T.V., In See also:Trau Vast, the motto of the order, alternately red and green. The Order of St George, said to have been founded in the 12th century as a crusading order and revived by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1494, dates historically from its institution in 1729 by the elector Charles Albert, afterwards the emperor Charles VII. It was confirmed by the elector Charles See also:Theodore in 1778 and by the elector Maximilian Joseph IV. as the second Bavarian order. Various new statutes have been granted from 1827 to 1875. The order is divided into two branches, " of See also:German and foreign See also:languages," and it also has a " spiritual class." The members of the order must be Roman Catholics. The badge is a blue enamelled cross with white and gold edging suspended from the mouth of a gold lion's head; in the angles of the cross are blue lozenges containing the letters V.I.B.I., Virgini Immaculatae Bavaria Immaculata. The central medallion contains a figure of the Immaculate Conception. The medallion on the reverse contains a figure of St George and the Dragon and the corresponding initials J.U.P.F., Justus tit See also:Palma Florebit, the motto of the order. Besides the above Bavaria possesses the Military Order of Maximilian Joseph, 18o6, and the Civil Orders of Merit of St Michael, 1693, and of the Bavarian Crown, 18o8, and other See also:minor orders and decorations, civil and military. There are also the two illustrious orders for ladies, the Order of Elizabeth, founded in 1766, and the Order of Theresa, in 1827.

The See also:

foundations of St Anne of See also:Munich and of St Anne of Wiirzburg for ladies are not properly orders. iv. See also:Brunswick. The Order of Henry the Lion, for military and civil merit, was founded by Duke William in 1834. There are five classes, and a cross of merit of two classes. The badge is a blue enamelled cross dependent from a lion surmounted by the ducal crown ; the angles of the cross are filled by crowned W's and the centre bears the arms of Brunswick, a crowned See also:pillar and a white See also:horse, between two See also:sickles. The ribbon is deep red bordered with yellow. v. See also:Hanover. The Order of St George (one class only) was instituted by King Ernest See also:Augustus I. in 1839 as the family order of the house of Hanover; the Royal Guelphic Order (three classes) by George, prince regent, afterwards George IV. of Great Britain, in 1815; and the Order of Ernest Augustus by George V. of Hanover in 1865. These orders have not been conferred since 1866, when Hanover ceased to be a kingdom, and the Royal Guelphic Order, which from its institution was more British than Hanoverian, not since the death of William IV. in 1837. The last British grand cross was the See also:late duke of See also:Cambridge.

vi. See also:

Hesse. Of the various orders founded by the houses of Hesse-See also:Cassel and Hesse-See also:Darmstadt the following are still bestowed in the grand duchy of Hesse. The Order of Louis, founded by the grand duke Louis I. of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1807; there are five classes; the black, red and gold bordered cross bears the initial L. in the centre, the ribbon is black with red borders; the Order of Philip the Magnanimous, founded by the grand duke Louis II. in 184o has five classes; the white cross of the badge bears the effigy of Philip surrounded by the motto Si See also:Deus vobiscunz quis contra nos. The Order of the Golden Lion was founded in 1770 by the See also:landgrave Frederick II. of Hesse-Cassel, the knights are 41 in number and take precedence of the members of the two former orders. The badge is an open oval of gold with the See also:Hessian lion in the centre. The ribbon is crimson. vii. See also:Mecklenburg. The grand duchies of Mecklenburg-See also:Schwerin and Mecklenburg-See also:Strelitz possess jointly the Order of the Wendish Crown, founded in 1864 by the grand dukes Frederick Francis II. of Schwerin and Frederick William of Strelitz; there are four classes, with two divisions of the grand cross, and also an affiliated cross of merit; the grand cross can be granted to ladies. The badge is a white cross bearing on a blue centre the Wendish crown, surrounded by the motto, for the Schwerin knights, Per aspera ad astra, for the Strelitz knights, Avito viret honore. The Order of the See also:Griffin, founded in 1884 by Frederick Francis III. of Schwerin, was made See also:common to the duchies in 1904.

viii. Oldenberg. The Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis, a family order and order of merit, was founded by the grand duke Paul Frederick Augustus in memory of his father in 1838. It has two divisions, each of five classes, of capitular knights and honorary members.' The badge is a white gold bordered cross suspended from a crown, in the centre the crowned monogram P.F.L. surrounded by the motto Ein Gott, Ein Becht, See also:

Fine Wahrheit; the ribbon is dark blue bordered with red. ix. Prussia. The Order of the Black Eagle, one of the most distinguished of European orders, was founded in 1701 by the elector of See also:Brandenburg, Frederick I., in memory of his coronation as king of Prussia. The order consists of one class only and the See also:original statutes limited the number, exclusive of the princes of the royal house and foreign members, to 30. But the number has been exceeded. It is only conferred on those of royal lineage and upon high officers of state. It confers the nobiliary particle von. Onlythose who have received the Order of the Red Eagle are eligible.

An illustration of the badge of the order with ribbon is given on Plate IV. fig. 3. The star of silver bears the black eagle on an orange ground surrounded by a silver fillet on which is the motto of the order Suum Cuique. The collar is formed of alternate black eagles and a circular medallion with the motto on a white centre surrounded by the initials F.R. repeated in green, the whole in a circle of blue with four gold crowns on the exterior rim. The Order of the Red Eagle, the second of the Prussian orders, was founded originally as the Order of Sincerity (L'Ordre de la Sincerite) in 1705 by George William, hereditary prince of Brandenburg-See also:

Bayreuth. The original constitution and insignia are now entirely changed, with the exception of the red eagle which formed the centre of the cross of the badge. The order had almost fallen into oblivion when it was revived in 1734 by the margrave George Frederick Charles as the Order of the Brandenburg Red Eagle. It consisted of 30 nobly born knights. The numbers were increased and a grand cross class added in 1759. On the cession of the principality to Prussia in 1i91 the order was transferred and King Frederick William raised it to that place in Prussian orders which it has since maintained. The order was divided into four classes in 1810 and there are now five classes with numerous sub-divisions. It is an order of civil and military merit.

The grand cross resembles the badge of the Black Eagle, but is white and the eagles in the corners red, the central medallion bearing the initials W.R. (those of William I.) surrounded by a blue fillet with the motto Sincere et Constanter. The numerous classes and sub-divisions have exceedingly complicated distinguishing marks, some bearing crossed swords, a crown, or an oak-See also:

leaf surmounting the cross. The ribbon is white with two orange stripes. The Order for Merit (Ordre pour le Merite), one of the most highly prized of European orders of merit, has now two divisions, military and for science and art. It was originally founded by the electoral prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia, in 1667 as the Order of Generosity; it was given its present name and granted for civil and military distinction by Frederick the Great, 1740. In 1810 the order was made one for military merit against the enemy in the field exclusively. In 184o the class for distinction for science and art, or See also:peace class (Friedensklasse) was founded by Frederick William IV., for those " who have gained an illustrious name by wide recognition in the See also:spheres of science and art." The number is limited to 3o German and 30 foreign members. The See also:Academy of Sciences and Arts on a vacancy nominates three candidates, from which one is selected by the king. It is interesting to See also:note that this was the only distinction which See also:Thomas See also:Carlyle would accept. The badge of the military order is a blue cross with gold uncrowned eagles in the angles; on the topmost arm is the initial F., with a crown; on the other arms the inscription Pour le _Write. The ribbon is black with a silver stripe at the edges.

In 1866 a special grand cross was instituted for the crown prince (afterwards Frederick III.) and Prince Frederick Charles. It was in 1879 granted to Count von See also:

Moltke as a special distinction. The badge of the class for science or art is a circular medallion of white, with a gold eagle in the centre surrounded by a blue border with the inscription Pour le Merite; on the white field the letters IF. II. four times repeated, and four crowns in gold projecting from the rim. The ribbon is the same as for the military class. The Order of the Crown, founded by William I. in 1861, ranks with the Red Eagle. There are four classes, with many subdivisions. Other Prussian orders are the Order of William, instituted by William II. in 1896; a Prussian branch of the knights of St John of Jerusalem, JohanniterOrden, in its present form dating from 1893 ; and the family Order of the House of Hohenzollern, founded in 1851 by Frederick William IV. There are two divisions, military and civil, divided into four classes. The military badge is a white cross with black and gold edging, resting on a green oak and laurel wreath ; the central medallion bears the Prussian Eagle with the antis of Hohenzollern, and is surrounded by a blue fillet with the motto Vom Fels zum See also:Meer; the civil badge is a black eagle, with the head encircled with a blue fillet with the motto. There are also for ladies the Order of Service, founded in 1814 by Frederick William III., in one class, but enlarged in 1850 and in 1865. The decoration of merit for ladies (Verdienst-kreuz), founded in 1870, was raised to an order in 1907.

For the famous military decoration, the Iron CrOSS,' See MEDALS. x. See also:

Saxony.—The Order of the Crown of Rue (Rauten Krone) was founded as a family order by Frederick Augustus I. in 1807. It is of one class only, and the sons and nephews of the sovereign are born knights of the order. It is granted to foreign ruling princes and subjects of high rank. The badge is a See also:pale green enamelled cross resting on a gold crown with eight rue leaves, the centre is white with the crowned monogram of'the founder surrounded by a green circlet of rue; the star bears in its centre the motto Providentiae Memor. The ribbon is green. Other Saxon orders are the military Order of St Henry, for distinguished service in the field, founded in 1736 in one class; since 1829 it has had four classes; the ribbon is sky blue with two yellow stripes, the gold cross bears in the centre the effigy of the emperor Henry II.; the Order of Albert, for civil and military merit, founded in 1850 by Frederick Augustus II. in memory of Duke Albert the Bold, the founder of the Albertine See also:line of Saxony, has six classes; the Order of Civil Merit, was founded in 15 1 815. For ladies there are the Order of Sidonia, 187o, in memory of the wife of Albert the Bold, the mother (Stamm-Mutter) of the Albertine line; and the Maria See also:Anna Order, 1906. xi. The duchies of See also:Saxe See also:Altenburg, Saxe See also:Coburg See also:Gotha and Saxe See also:Meiningen have in common the family Order of Ernest, founded in 1833 in memory of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe Gotha and as a revival of the Order of German Integrity (Orden der deutschen Redlichkeit) founded in 1690. Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe Meiningen have also See also:separate crosses of merit in science and art.

xii. Saxe Iteimar.—The Order of the White See also:

Falcon or of Vigilance was founded in 1732 and renewed in 1815. xiii. See also:Wurttemberg.—The Order of the Crown of Wurttemberg was founded in 1818, uniting the former Order of the Golden Eagle and an order of civil merit. It has five classes. he badge is a white cross surmounted by the royal crown, in the centre the initial F surrounded by a crimson fillet on which is the motto Furchtlos and Treu; in the angles of the cross are four golden leopards; the ribbon is crimson with two black stripes. Besides the military Order of Merit founded in 1759, and the silver cross of merit, 1900, Wurttemberg has also the Order of Frederick, 183o, and the Order of See also:Olga, 1871, which is granted to ladies as well as men. See also:Greece.—The Order of the Redeemer was founded as such in 1833 by King See also:Otto, being a conversion of a decoration of honour instituted in 1829 by the See also:National See also:Assembly at See also:Argos. There are five classes, the numbers being regulated for each. An illustration of the badge and ribbon of the grand cross is given on Plate V. fig. i. See also:Holland.--The Order of William, for military merit, was founded in 1815 by William I.; there are four classes; the badge is a white cross resting on a green laurel Burgundian cross, in the centre the Burgundian See also:flint-See also:steel, as in the order of the Golden Fleece. The motto Voer Moed, Belied, Trouw (For Valour, Devotion, Loyalty), appears on the arms of the cross. The cross is surmounted by a jewelled crown; the ribbon is orange with dark blue edging.

The Order of the Netherlands Lion, for civil merit, was founded in 1818; there are four classes. The family Order of the Golden Lion of See also:

Nassau passed in 1890 to the grand duchy of Luxembourg (see under See also:Luxemburg). In 1892 Queen See also:Wilhelmina instituted the Order of Orange-Nassau with five classes. The Teutonic Order (q.v.), surviving in the Ballarde (Bailiwick) of See also:Utrecht, was officially established in the Netherlands by the States General in 1580. It was abolished by Napoieon in 1811 and was restored in 1815. Italy.—The Order of the Annunziata, the highest order of knight-See also:hood of the See also:Italian kingdom, was instituted in 1362 by Amadeus VI., count of See also:Savoy, as the Order of the Collare or Collar, from the silver collar made up of love-knots and roses, which was its badge, in honour of the fifteen joys of the Virgin; hence the number of the knights was restricted to fifteen, the fifteen chaplains recited fifteen masses each day, and the clauses of the original statute of the order were fifteen (Amadeus VIII. added five others in 1434). Charles III. decreed that the order should be called the Annunziata, and made some other alterations in 1518. His son and successor, See also:Emmanuel Philibert, made further modifications in the statute and the See also:costume. The church of the order was originally the Carthusian monastery of See also:Pierre-chatel in the See also:district of Bugey, but after Charles Emmanuel I. had given Bugey and See also:Bresse to France in 16oi the church of the order was transferred to the Camaldolese monastery near See also:Turin. That religious order having been suppressed at the time of the French Revolution, King Charles Albert decreed in 184o that the Carthusian church of Collegno should be the chapel of the order. The knights of the Annunziata have the title of "See also:cousins of the king," and enjoy precedence over all the other officials of the state. The costume of the order is of white satin embroidered in See also:silk, with a purple See also:velvet cloak adorned with roses and gold See also:embroidery, but it is now never worn; in the collar the motto Fert is inserted, on the meaning of which there is great uncertainty,' and from it hangs a See also:pendant enclosing a medallion representing the See also:Annunciation (see Plate IV. fig.

7). An See also:

account of the order is given in Count See also:Luigi See also:Cibrario's Ordini Cavallereschi (Turin, 1846) with coloured plates of the costume and badges. The Order of St See also:Maurice and St See also:Lazarus (SS Maurizio e Lazzaro), is a See also:combination of two ancient orders. The Order of St Maurice was originally founded by Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, in 1434, when he retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, and consisted of a See also:group of half-a-dozen councillors who were to advise him on such affairs of state as he continued to See also:control. When he became See also:pope as See also:Felix V. the order practically ceased to exist. It was re-established at the instance of Emmanuel Philibert by Pope See also:Pius V. in 1572 as a military and religious order, and the following year it was united to that of St Lazarus by See also:Gregory XI II. The latter order had been founded as a military and religious community at the time of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem with the object of assisting lepers, many of whom were among its members. ' Popes, princes and nobles endowed it with estates and privileges, including that of administering and succeeding to the See also:property of lepers, which eventually led to See also:grave ' It has been taken as the Latin word meaning " he bears " or as representing the initials of the legend Fortitudo Ejus Rhodum Tenuit, with an allusion to a defence of the island of See also:Rhodes by an ancient count of Savoy. XV. 28abuses. With the advance of the See also:Saracens the knights of St Lazarus, when driven from the Holy See also:Land and See also:Egypt, migrated to France (1291) and See also:Naples (1311), where they founded leper hospitals. The order in Naples, which alone was afterwards recognized as the legitimate descendant of the Jerusalem community, was empowered to seize and confine anyone suspected of leprosy, a permission which led to the See also:establishment of a regular inquisitorial See also:system of See also:blackmail.

In the 15th and 16th centuries dissensions See also:

broke out among the knights, and the order declined in See also:credit and wealth, until finally the grand master, Giannotto Castiglioni, resigned his position in favour of Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1571. Two years later the orders of St Lazarus and St Maurice were incorporated into one community, the members of which were to devote themselves to the defence of the Holy See and to fight its enemies as well as to continue assisting lepers. The galleys of the order subsequently took part in various expeditions against the See also:Turks and the See also:Barbary pirates. Leprosy, which had almost disappeared in the 17th century, broke out once more in the 18th, and in 1773 a See also:hospital was established by the order at See also:Aosta, made famous by See also:Xavier de See also:Maistre's See also:tale, Le Lepreux de la cite d'Aoste. The statutes were published in 1816, by which date the order had lost its military See also:character; it was reformed first by Charles Albert (1831), and later by See also:Victor Emmanuel II., king of Italy (1868). The knighthood of St Maurice and St Lazarus is now a dignity conferred by the king of Italy (the grand master) on persons distinguished in the public service, science, art and letters, trade, and above all in charitable works, to which its income is devoted. There are five classes. The badge of the combined order is composed of the white cross with See also:trefoil termination of St Lazarus resting on the green cross of St Maurice; both crosses are bordered gold. The first four classes wear the badge suspended from a royal crown. The ribbon is dark green. See L. Cibrario, Descrizione storica degli Ordini Cavallereschi, vol. i.

(Turin, 1846); Calendario Reale, an See also:

annual publication issued in See also:Rome. The military Order of Savoy was founded in 1815 by Victor Emmanuel of See also:Sardinia; badge modified 1855 and 1857. It has now five classes. The badge is a white cross, the arms of which expand and terminate in an obtuse See also:angle; round the cross is a green laurel and oak wreath; the central medallion is red, bearing in gold two crossed swords, the initials of the founder and the date 1855. The ribbon is red with a central stripe of blue. The Civil Order of Savoy, founded in 1831 by Charles Albert of Sardinia, is of one class, and in statutes of 1868 is limited to 6o members. The badge is the plain Savoy cross in blue, with silver medallion, the ribbon is blue with white borders. The Order of the Crown of Italy was founded in 1868 by Victor Emmanuel II. in commemoration of the union of Italy into a kingdom. There are five classes. Luxemburg.—The Order of the Golden Lion was founded as a family order of the house of Nassau by William III. of the Netherlands and See also:Adolphus of Nassau jointly. On the death of William in 1890 it passed to the grand duke of Luxemburg; it has only one class. The Order of Adolphus of Nassau, for civil and military merit, in four classes, was founded in 1858, and the Order of the Oak Crown as a general order of merit, in five classes, in 1841, modified 1858.

See also:

Monaco.—The Order of St Charles, five classes, was founded in 1858 by Prince Charles III. and remodelled in 1863. It is a general order of merit. See also:Montenegro.—The Order of St Peter, founded in 1852, is a family order, in one class, and only given to members of the princely family; the Order of Danilo, or of the See also:Independence of Montenegro, is a general order of merit, in four classes, with subdivisions, also founded in 1852. See also:Norway.—The Order of St See also:Olaf was founded in 1847 by Oscar I. in honour of St Olaf, the founder of See also:Christianity in Norway, as a general order of merit, military and civil. There are three classes, the last two being. in 1873 and 189o, subdivided into two grades each. The badge and ribbon is illustrated on Plate V, fig. 5. The reverse bears the motto See also:Ret og Sandhed (Right and Truth). The Order of the See also:Norwegian Lion, founded in 1904 by Oscar II., has only one class; foreigners on whom the order is conferred must be sovereigns or heads of'states or members of reigning houses. Papal.—The arrangement and constitution of the papal orders was remodelled by a brief of Pius X. in 1905. The Order of Christ, the supreme pontifical order, is of one class only; for the history of this ancient order see Portugal (infra). The badge and ribbon is the same as the older Portuguese form.

The Order of Pius was founded in 1847 by Pius IX.; there are now three classes; the badge is an eight-pointed blue star with golden flames between the rays, a white centre bears the founder's narne; the ribbon is blue with two red stripes at each border. The Order of St Gregory the Great, founded in 1831, is in two divisions, civil and military, each having three classes. The Order of St See also:

Sylvester was originally founded as the Order of the Golden See also:Spur by Paul IV. in 1559 as a military body, though tradition assigns it to See also:Constantine the Great and Pope Sylvester. It was reorganized as an order of merit by Gregory XVI. in 1841. In 1905 the order was divided into three classes, and a separate order, that of the Golden Spur or Golden Legion (See also:Militia Aurata) was established, in one class, with the numbers limited to a See also:hundred. The cross See also:Pro Ecslesia et Pontifice, instituted by See also:Leo XITI. II in 1888 is a decoration, not an order. There remains the See also:venerable Order of the Holy See also:Sepulchre, of which tradition assigns the foundation to See also:Godfrey de See also:Bouillon. It was, however, probably founded as a military order for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre by Alexander VI. in 1496. The right to nominate to the order was shared with the pope as grand master by the See also:guardian of the Patres Minores in Jerusalem, later by the See also:Franciscans, and then by the Latin See also:patriarch in Jerusalem. In 1905 the latter was nominated grand master, but the pope reserves the joint right of nomination. The badge of the order is a red Jerusalem cross with red Latin crosses in the engles.

Portugal.—The Order of Christ was founded on the abolition of the See also:

Templars by See also:Dionysius or Diniz of Portugal and in 1318 in See also:conjunction with Pope John XXI I., both having the right to nominate to the order. The papal branch survives as a distinct order. In 1522 it was formed as a distinct Portuguese order and the grand mastership vested in the crown of Portugal. In 1789 its original religious aspect was abandoned, and with the exception that its members must be of the Roman Catholic faith, it is entirely secularized. There are three classes. The original badge of the order was a long red cross with See also:expanded See also:flat ends bearing a small cross in white; the ribbon is red. The See also:modern badge is a blue enamelled cross resting on a green laurel wreath ; the central medallion, in white, contains the old red and white cross. The older form is worn with the collar by the grand-crosses. The Order of the See also:Tower and Sword was founded in 18o8 in See also:Brazil by the regent, afterwards king John VI. of Portugal, as a revival of the old Order of the Sword, said to have been founded by Alfonso V. in 1459. It was remodelled in 1832 under its present name and constitution as a general order of military and civil merit. There are five classes. The badge of the order and ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV. fig 4.

The Order of St See also:

Benedict of Aviz (earlier of See also:Evora), founded in 1162 as a religious military order, was secularized in 1789 as an order of military merit, in four classes. The badge is a green cross See also:fleury; the ribbon is green. The Order of St James of the Sword, or James of Compostella, is a branch of the Spanish order of that name (see under Spain). It also was secularized in 1789, and in 1862 was constituted an order of merit for science, literature and art, in five classes. The badge is the See also:lily-hilted sword of St James, enamelled red with gold borders; the ribbon is See also:violet. In 1789 these three orders were granted a common badge uniting the three separate crosses in a gold medallion; the joint ribbon is red, green and violet, and to the separate crosses was added a red sacred heart and small white cross. There are also the Order of Our Lady of See also:Villa Vicosa (1819), for both sexes, and the Order of St Isabella, 18oi, for ladies. See also:Rumania.—The Order of the Star of Rumania was founded in 1877, and the Order of the Crown of Rumania in 1881, both in five classes, for civil and military merit; the ribbon of the first is red with blue borders, of the second light blue with two silver stripes. Russia.—The Order of St Andrew was founded in 1698 by Peter the Great. It is the chief order cf the empire, and admission carries with it according to the statutes of 1720 the orders of St Anne, Alexander Nevsky, and the White Eagle; there is only one class. The badge and ribbon is illustrated in Plate IV. fig 5. The collar is composed of three members alternately, the imperial eagle bearing on a red medallion a figure of St George slaying the Dragon, the badge of the grand duchy of Moskow, the cipher of the emperor Paul I. in gold on a blue ground, surmounted by the imperial crown, and surrounded by a See also:trophy of weapons and green and white flags, and a circular red and gold star with a blue St Andrew's cross.

The Order of St See also:

Catherine, for ladies, ranks next to the St Andrew. It was founded under the name of the Order of See also:Rescue by Peter the Great in 1714 in honour of the empress Catherine and the part she had taken in rescuing him at the See also:battle of the Pruth in 1711. There are two classes. The grand cross is only for members of the imperial house and ladies of the highest See also:nobility. The second class was added in 1797. The badge of the order is a cross of diamonds bearing in a medallion the effigy of St Catherine. The ribbon is red with the motto For Love and Fatherland in silver letters. The Order of St Alexander Nevsky was founded in 1725 by the empress Catherine I. There is only one class. The badge is a red enamelled cross with gold eagles in the angles, bearing in a medallion the mounted effigy of St Alexander Nevsky. The ribbon is red. The Order of the White Eagle was founded in 1713 by Augustus II. of See also:Poland and was adopted as a See also:Russian order in 1831; there is one class.

The Order Vof St Anne was founded by Charles Frederick, duke of Holsteinottorp in 1735 in honour of his wife, Anna Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great. It was adopted as a Russian order in 1797 by their See also:

grandson, the emperor Paul. There are four classes. Other orders are those of St See also:Vladimir, founded by Catherine II., 1782, four classes, and of St See also:Stanislaus, founded originally as a See also:Polish order by Stanislaus Augustus See also:Poniatowski in 1765, and adopted as a Russian order in 1831. The military Order of St George was founded by the empress Catherine II. in 1769 for military service on land and See also:sea, with four classes; a fifth class for non-commissioned officers and men, the St George's Cross, was added in 1807. The badge is a white cross with gold borders, with a red central medallion on which is the figure of St George slaying the dragon. The ribbon is orange with three black stripes. See also:Servia.—The Order of the White Eagle, the principal order, was founded by See also:Milan I. in 1882, statutes 1883, in five classes ; the ribbon is blue and red ; the Order of St Sava, founded 1883, also in five classes, is an order of merit for science and art ; the Order of the Star of Karageorgevitch, four classes, was founded by Peter I. in 1904. The orders of Milosch the Great, founded by Alexander I. in 1898 and of Takovo, founded originally by Michael Obrenovitch in 1863, reconstituted in 1883, are since the dynastic revolution of 1903 no longer bestowed. The Order of St Lazarus is not a general order, the cross and collar being only worn by the king. Spain.—The Spanish branch of the Order of the Golden Fleece has been treated above. The three most ancient orders of Spain—of St James of Compostelia, or St James of the Sword, of See also:Alcantara and of Calatrava—still exist as orders of merit, the first in three classes, the last two as orders of military merit in one class.

They were all originally founded as military religious orders, like the crusading Templars and the Hospitallers, but to fight for the true faith against the See also:

Moors in Spain. The present badges of the orders represent the crosses that the knights wore on their mantles. That of St James of Compostella is the red lily-hilted sword of St James; the ribbon is also red. The other two orders wear the cross fleury—Alcantara red, Calatrava green, with corresponding ribbons. A See also:short history of these orders may be here given. Tradition gives the foundation of the Order of Knights of St James of Compostella to Ramiro II., king of See also:Leon, in the loth century, to commemorate a victory over theMoors, but, historically the order dates from the See also:confirmation in 1175 by Pope Alexander III. It gained great reputation in the See also:wars against the Moors and became very wealthy. In 1493 the grand-mastership was annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic, and was vested permanently in the crown of Spain by Pope See also:Adrian VI. in 1522. The Order of Knights of Alcantara, instituted about 1156 by the See also:brothers See also:Don See also:Suarez and Don See also:Gomez de Barrientos for protection against the Moors. In 1177 they were confirmed as a religious order of knighthood under See also:Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until about 1213 they were known as the Knights of See also:San See also:Julian del Pereyro; but when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from the Moors by See also:Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they took their name from that See also:city. Fora considerable time they were in some degree subject to the grand master of the kindred order of Calatrava.

Ultimately, however, they asserted their independence by electing a grand master of their own, the first holder of the See also:

office being Don Diego Sanche. During the rule of See also:thirty-seven successive grand masters, similarly chosen, the See also:influence and wealth of the order gradually increased until the Knights of Alcantara were almost as powerful as the sovereign. In 1494–1495 Juan de Zuniga was prevailed upon to resign the grand-mastership to Ferdinand, who thereupon vested it in his own See also:person as king; and this arrangement was ratified by a See also:bull of Pope Alexander VI., and was declared permanent by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. The yearly income of Zuniga at the time of his resignation amounted to 150,000 ducats. In 1540 Pope Paul III. released the knights from the strictness of Benedictine rule by giving them permission to marry, though second marriage was forbidden. The three vows were henceforth obedientia, castitas conjugalis and conversio morum. In modern times the history of the order has been somewhat chequered. When Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain in 1808, he deprived the knights of their revenues, which were only partially recovered on the restoration of Ferdinand VII. in 1814. The order ceased to exist as a spiritual body in 1835. The Order of Knights of Calatrava was founded in 1158 by Don Sancho III. of Castile, who presented the See also:town of Calatrava, newly wrested from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1164 Pope Alexander III. granted confirmation as a religious military order under Cistercian rule. In 1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the Moors and the order removed to the castle of Salvatierra, but recovered their town in 1212.

In 1489 Ferdinand seized the grand-mastership, and it was finally vested in the crown of Spain in 1523. The order became a military order of merit in 18o8 and was reorganized in 1874. The Royal and Illustrious Order of Charles III. was founded in 1771 by Charles III., in two classes; altered in 1804, it was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in 1809, together with all the Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece, and the Royal Order of the Knights of Spain was established. In 1814 Ferdinand VII. revived the order, and in 1847 it received its present constitution, viz. of three classes (the commanders in two divisions). The badge of the order is a blue and white cross suspended from a green laurel wreath, in the angles are golden lilies, and the oval centre bears a figure of the Virgin in a golden See also:

glory. The ribbon is blue and white. The Order of Isabella the Catholic was founded in 1815 under the patronage of St Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal; originally instituted to reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish possessions in See also:America, it is now a general order of merit, in three classes. The badge is a red rayed cross with gold rays in the angles, in the centre a representation of the pillars of See also:Hercules; the cross is attached to the yellow and white ribbon by a green laurel wreath. Other Spanish orders are the Maria Louisa, 1792, for noble ladies; the military and naval orders of merit of St Ferdinand, founded by the See also:Cortes in 1811, five classes; of St Ermenegild (Hermenegildo), 1814, three classes, of Military Merit and Naval Merit, 1866, and of Maria Christina, 189o; the Order of Beneficencia for civil merit, 1856; that of Alfonso XII. for merit in science, literature and art, 1902, and the Civil Order of Alfonso XII., 1902. Sweden.—The Order of the Seraphim (the "Blue Ribbon"). Tradition attributes the foundation of this most illustrious order of knight-hood to See also:Magnus I. in 128o, more certainty attaches to the fact that the order was in existence in 1336. In its modern form the order dates from its reconstitution in 1748 by Frederick I., modified by statutes of 1798 and 1814.

Exclusive of the sovereign and the princes of the blood, the order is limited to 23 See also:

Swedish and 8 foreign members. The native members must be already members of the Order of the Sword or the See also:Pole Star. There is a prelate of the order which is administered by a chapter; the chapel of the knights is in the Riddar Holmskyrka at See also:Stockholm. The badge and ribbon of the grand cross is illustrated on Plate V. fig. 6. The collar is formed of alternate gold seraphim and blue enamelled patriarchal crosses. The motto is Iesus Hominum Salvator. The Order of the Sword (the " Yellow Ribbon "), the principal Swedish military order, was founded, it is said, by Gustavus I. See also:Vasa in 1522, and was re-established by Frederick I., with the Seraphim and the Pole Star in 1748; modifications have been made in 1798, 1814 and 1889. There are five classes, with subdivisions. The badge is a white cross, in the angles gold crowns, the points of the cross joined by gold swords entwined with gold and blue belts, in the blue centre an upright sword with the three crowns in gold, the whole surmounted by the royal crown The ribbon is yellow with blue edging. The Order of the Pole Star (Polar Star, See also:North Star, the " Black Ribbon "), founded in 1748 for civil merit, has since 1844 three classes.

The white cross bears a five-pointed silver star on a blue medallion. The ribbon is black. The Order of Vasa (the " Green Ribbon "), founded by Gustavus III. in 1772 as an order of merit for services rendered to the national See also:

industries and manufactures, has three classes, with subdivisions. The white cross badge bears on a blue centre the charge of the house of Vasa, a gold sheaf shaped like a See also:vase with two handles. The ribbon is green. The Order of Charles XIII., founded in 1811, is granted to Freemasons of high degree. It is thus quite unique. See also:Turkey.—The Nischan-i-Imtiaz, or Order of See also:Privilege, was founded by Abdul Hamid II. in 1879 as a general order of merit in one class; the Nischan-el-Iftikhar, or Order of Glory, also one class, founded 1831 by Mahmoud I I. ; the Nischan-i-Mejidi, the Mejidieh, was founded as a civil and military order of merit in 1851 by Abdul Medjid. There are five classes; the badge is a silver See also:sun of seven clustered rays, with See also:crescent and star between each cluster; on a gold centre is the See also:sultan's name in black See also:Turkish lettering, surrounded by a red fillet inscribed with the words Zeal, Devotion, Loyalty; it is suspended from a red crescent and star; the ribbon is red with green borders. The See also:khedive of Egypt has authority, delegated by the sultan, to See also:grant this order. The Nischan-i-Osmanie, the Osmanieh, for civil and military merit, was founded by Abdul Aziz in 1862; it has four classes.

The badge is a gold sun with seven gold-bordered green rays; the red centre bears the crescent,and it is also suspended from a gold crescent and star; the ribbon is green bordered with red. The Nischan-i-Schefakat of Compassion or Benevolence, was instituted for ladies, in three classes, in 1878 by the sultan in honour of the See also:

work done for the non-combatant victims of the Russo-Turkish war of 1877 in connexion with the Turkish Compassionate Fund started by the late Baroness See also:Burdett-See also:Coutts. She was one of the first to receive the order. There are also the family order, for Turkish princes, the Hanedani-See also:Ali-See also:Osman, founded in 1893, and theErtogroul, in 1903. Non-European Orders.—Of the various states of Central and See also:South America, See also:Nicaragua has the See also:American Order of San Juan or See also:Grey Town, founded in 1857, in three classes; and See also:Venezuela that of the Bust of See also:Bolivar, 1854, five classes; the ribbon is yellow, blue and red. See also:Mexico has abolished its former orders, the Mexican Eagle, 1865, and Our Lady of Guadalupe, 1853; as has Brazil those of the See also:Southern Cross, 1822, Dom Pedro I., 1826, the See also:Rose, 1829, and the Brazilian branches of the Portuguese orders of Christ, St Benedict of Aviz and St James. The republican Order of See also:Columbus, founded in 1890, was abolished in 1891. See also:China.—There are no orders for natives, and such distinctions as are conferred by the different coloured buttons of the mandarins, the grades indicated by the number of peacocks' feathers, the See also:gift of the yellow jacket and the like, are rather insignia of rank or personal marks of honour than orders, whether of knighthood or merit, in the European sense. For foreigners, however, the emperor in 1882 established the See also:sole order, that of the Imperial Double Dragon, in five classes, the first three of which are further divided into three grades each, making eleven grades in all. The recipients eligible for the various classes are graded, from the first grade of the first class for reigning sovereigns down to the fifth class for merchants and manufacturers. The insignia of the order are unique in shape and decoration. Of the three grades of the first class the badge is a rectangular gold and yellow enamel See also:plaque, decorated with two upright blue dragons, with details in green and white, between the heads for the first grade a See also:pearl, for the second a See also:ruby, for the third a See also:coral, set in green, white and gold circles.

The See also:

size of the plaque varies for the different classes. The badges of the other four classes are round plaques, the first three with indented edges, the last plain; in the second class the dragons are in silver on a yellow and goldground, the See also:jewel is a cut coral ; the grades differ in the See also:colour, shape, &c., of the borders and indentations; in the third class the dragons are gold, the ground green, the jewel a See also:sapphire; in the fourth the silver dragons are on a blue ground, the jewel a lapis lazuli; in the fifth green dragons on a silver ground, the jewel a pearl. The ribbons, decorated with embroidered dragons, differ for the various grades and classes. See also:Japan.—The See also:Japanese orders have all been instituted by the emperor See also:Mutsu Hito. In See also:design and workmanship the insignia of the orders are beautiful examples of the art of the native enamellers. The Order of the Chrysanthemum (Kikkwa Daijasho), founded in 1877, has only one class. It is but rarely conferred on others than members of the royal house or foreign rulers or princes. The badge of the order may be described as follows: From a centre of red enamel representing the sun issue 32 white gold-bordered rays in four sharply projecting See also:groups, between the angles of which are four yellow conventional chrysanthemum See also:flowers with green leaves forming a circle on which the rays See also:rest; the whole is suspended from a larger yellow chrysanthemum. The ribbon is deep red bordered with purple. The collar, which may be granted with the order or later, is composed of four members repeated, two gold chrysanthemums, one with green leaves, the other surrounded by a wreath of palm, and two elaborate See also:arabesque designs. The Order of the Paulownia Sun (Tokwa Daijasho), founded in 1888, in one class, may be in a sense regarded as the highest class of the Rising Sun (Kiokujitsasho) founded in eight classes, in 1875. The badge of both orders is essentially the same, viz. the red sun with white and gold rays; in the former the See also:lilac flowers of the Paulownia See also:tree, the flower of the Tycoon's arms, take a prominent part.

The ribbon of the first order is deep red with white edging, of the second scarlet with white central stripe. The last two classes of the Rising Sun wear a decoration formed of the Paulownia flower and leaves. The Order of the See also:

Mirror or Happy Sacred Treasure (Zaihosho) was founded in 1888, with eight classes. The cross of white and gold clustered rays bears in a blue centre a silver star-shaped mirror. The ribbon is pale blue with orange stripes. There is also an order for ladies, that of the Crown, founded in five classes in 1888. The military order of Japan is the Order of the Golden See also:Kite, founded in 189o, in seven classes. The badge has an elaborate design; it consists of a star of purple, red, yellow, gold and silver rays, on which are displayed old Japanese weapons, See also:banners and See also:shields in various coloured enamels, the whole surmounted by a gole=an kite with outstretched wings. The ribbon is green with white stripes. See also:Persia.—The Order of the Sun and tLion, founded by Fath 'Ali Shah in 1808, has five classes. There is also the Nischan-i-A ftab, for ladies, founded in 1873. See also:Siam.—The Sacred Order, or the Nine See also:Precious Stones, was founded in 1869, in one class only, for the Buddhist princes of the royal house.

The Order of the While Elephant, founded in 1861, is in five classes. This is the principal general order. The badge is a striking example of See also:

Oriental design adapted to a European conventional form. The circular plaque is formed of a triple circle of lotus leaves in gold, red and green, within a blue circlet with pearls a richly caparisoned white elephant on a gold ground, the whole surmounted by the jewelled gold See also:pagoda crown of Siam; the collar is formed of alternate white elephants, red, blue and white royal monograms and gold pagoda crowns. The ribbon is red with green borders and small blue and white stripes. Other orders are the Siamese Crown (Mongkut Siam), five classes, founded 1869; the family Order of Chulah-Chon-Clao, three classes, 1873; and the Maha Charkrkri, 1884, only for princes and princesses of the reigning family. (C. WE.) KNIGHT-SERVICE, the dominant and distinctive See also:tenure of land under the feudal system. It is associated.in its origin with that development in warfare which made the mailed horseman, armed with See also:lance and sword, the most important See also:factor in battle. Till within See also:recent years it was believed that knight-service was See also:developed out of the liability, under the See also:English system, of every five hides to provide one soldier in war. It is now held that, on the contrary, it was a novel system which was introduced after the See also:Conquest by the See also:Normans, who relied essentially on their mounted knights, while the English fought on See also:foot. They were already See also:familiar with the principle of knight-service, the knight's See also:fee, as it came to be termed in England, being represented in See also:Normandy by the See also:fief du haubert, so termed from the hauberk or coat of See also:mail (lorica) which was worn by the knight.

Allusion is made to this in the coronation See also:

charter of Henry I. (r Too), which speaks of those holding by knight-serilice as milites qui per loricam terras suas deserviunt. The Conqueror, it is now held, divided the lay lands of England among his followers, to be held by the service of a fixed number of knights in his See also:host, and imposed the same service on most of the great ecclesiastical bodies which retained their landed endowments. No See also:record See also:evidence exists of this See also:action on his part, and the See also:quota of knight-service exacted was rot determined by the See also:area or value of the lands granted (or retained), but was based upon the unit of the feudal host, the constabularia of ten knights. Of the tenants-in-chief or barons (i.e. those who held directly of the crown), the principal were called on to find one or more of these See also:units, while of the lesser ones some were called on for five knights, that is, half a constabularia. The same system was adopted in Ireland when that country was conquered under Henry II. The baron who had been enfeoffed by his sovereign on these terms could provide the knights required either by See also:hiring them for pay or, more conveniently when wealth was mainly represented by land, by a process of subenfeoffment, analogous to that by which he himself had been enfeoffed. That is to say, he could assign to an under-See also:tenant a certain portion of his fief to be held by the service of finding one or more knights. The land so held would then be described as consisting of one or more knights' fees, but the knight's fee had not, as was formerly supposed, any fixed area. This process could be carried farther till there was a chain of See also:mesne lords between the tenant-in-chief and the actual holder of the land; but the liability for performance of the knight-service was always carefully defined. The primary See also:obligation See also:incumbent on every knight was service in the field, when called upon, for See also:forty days a year, with specified See also:armour and arms. There was, however, a See also:standing dispute as to whether he could be called upon to perform this service outside the See also:realm, nor was the question of his expenses See also:free from difficulty.

In addition to this primary See also:

duty he had, in numerous cases at least, to perform that of " castle See also:ward " at his lord's chief castle for a fixed number of days in the year. On certain baronies also was incumbent the duty of providing knights for the guard of royal castles, such as Windsor, See also:Rockingham and See also:Dover. Under the feudal system the tenant by knight-service had also the same pecuniary obligations to his lord as had his lord to the king. These consisted of (1) " See also:relief," which he paid on succeeding to his lands; (2) " wardship," that is, the profits from his lands during a minority; (3) " marriage," that is, the right of giving in marriage, unless bought off, his heiress, his See also:heir (if a minor) and his widow; and also of the three " See also:aids " (see See also:Arras). The chief sources of See also:information for the extent and development of knight-service are the returns (cartae) of the barons (i.e. the tenants-in-chief) in 1166, informing the king, at his See also:request, of the names of their tenants by knight-service with the number of fees they held, supplemented by the payments for " See also:scutage (see SCUTAGE) recorded on the See also:pipe rolls, by the later returns printed in the Testa de Nevill, and by the still later ones collected in Feudal Aids. In the returns made in 1166 some of the barons appear as having enfeoffed more and some less than the number of knights they had to find. In the latter See also:case they described the See also:balance as being chargeable on their " See also:demesne," that is, on the portion of their fief which remained in their own hands. These returns further prove that lands had already been granted for the service of a fraction of a knight, such service being in practice already commuted for a proportionate See also:money See also:payment; and they show that the See also:total number of knights with which land held by military service was charged was not, as was formerly supposed, sixty thousand, but, probably, somewhere between five and six thousand. Similar returns were made for Normandy, and are valuable for the light they throw on its system of knight-service. The principle of commuting for money the obligation of military service struck at the See also:root of the whole system, and so See also:complete was the See also:change of conception that " tenure by knight-service of a mesne lord becomes, first in fact and then in law, tenure by escuage (i.e. scutage)." By the time of Henry III., as See also:Bracton states, the test of tenure was scutage; liability, however small, to scutage payment made the tenure military. The disintegration of the system was carried farther in the latter half of the 13th century as a consequence of changes in warfare, which were increasing the importance of foot soldiers and making the service of a knight for forty days of less value to the king. The barons, instead of paying scutage, compounded for their service by the payment of lump sums, and, by a processwhich is still obscure, the nominal quotas of knight-service due from each had, by the time of Edward I., been largely reduced.

The knight's fee, however, remained a knight's fee, and the pecuniary incidents of military tenure, especially wardship, marriage, and fines on See also:

alienation, long continued to be a source of See also:revenue to the crown. But at the Restoration (166o) tenure by knight-service was abolished by law (12 See also:Car. II. c. 24), and with it these vexatious exactions were abolished.

End of Article: ORDERS OF

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