See also:

• HISTORY

Under the manorial system, the rise of which preceded the See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

The following are typical passages: " See also:

• APRIL

The 15th century, barren of progress in methods of husbandry, was in its early years moderately prosperous. Later on the increasing See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

In the former treatise we have a clear and See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

" In the latter end of May and the begynnynge of See also:

• JUNE

See also:

• SWINE

For those beestis in the house have See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

Hops, which had been introduced in the early part of the 16th century, and on the culture of which a treatise was published in 1574 by Reginald See also:

• SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550)
• SCOTT, DAVID (18o6-1849)
• SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835)
• SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887)
• SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878)
• SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART
• SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890)
• SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866)

" See also:

• CARROT

Before 1655 the culture of clover, exactly according to the present method, seems to have been well known in England, and it had also made its way to See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

The drainage of the Great Level of the See also:

• FENS

Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the 16th and the greater part of the 17th century very little is known; no professed treatise on the subject appeared till after the Revolution. &oUish The See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

" The minority of See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

Ten acres (he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &c., will feed as many sheep as one hundred acres thereof would before have done." The next writer of See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

After examining several hypotheses, he decides this to be fine particles of earth. The chief and almost the only use of dung, he thinks, is to See also:

• DIVIDE

The spread of these principles in Norfolk made it, according to See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

The outfield land is ordinarily made use of promiscuously for feeding of their cows, horse, sheep and oxen; 'tis also dunged by their sheep who See also:

• LAY

In this he See also:

• LAYS

The passing of some 3500 enclosure bills, affecting between 5 and 51 million acres, during the reign of George III., before which the whole number was between 200 and 250, shows how rapidly the break-up of the common-field husbandry and the cultivation of new land now proceeded. The disastrous See also:

• AMERICAN

The latter was accidentally discovered in 1788, and both soon came into general cultivation. In the same year See also:

• MERINO

6d.. and in the following year reached 96s. In 1797 the fear of foreign invasion led to a panic and run upon the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

Previous to this period the husbandry of Scotland was still in a backward state as compared with the best districts of England, where many practices, only of See also:

• RECENT

Before the close of the 18th century, and during the first quarter of the x9th, a good deal had been done in the way of draining the land, either by open ditches or by James See also:

• ELKINGTON, GEORGE RICHARDS (1801-1865)

The See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

In x800 the original Farmers' See also:

• MAGAZINE

In 1865 the See also:

• RINDERPEST (German for " cattle-plague," which is. the English synonym)

The most important additions to the list of field crops were See also:

• ITALIAN

A fall in rents was the necessary sequel of the agricultural See also:

• DISTRESS

The generally wet character of the seasons in 1879 and the two or three years following was mainly responsible for the high prices of See also:

• MEAT

It is true that one season of the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

Amongst its chief recommendations were those See also:

• RELATING

In 1899 the drought became most intense in the autumn after the corn crops had been harvested, but during the chief period, of growth of the root crops; correspondingly the corn crops of that year See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

In the subsequent years the principle, which had already made great progress in Ireland, began to obtain a hold in England and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

The Diseases of Animals Act 1896 provided for the compulsory slaughter of imported live stock at the place of landing. The Light See also:

• RAILWAYS

Wheat. Barley. Oats. Total. 1875 3,514,088 2,751,362 4.176,177 10,441,627 188o 3,065,895 2,695,000 4,191,716 9,952,611 1885 2,553,092 2,447,169 4,282,594 9,282,855 1890 2,483,595 2,300,994 4,137,790 8,922,379 1895 1,456,042 2,346,367 4,527,899 8,330,308 1900 1,901,014 2,172,140 4,145,633 8,218,787 1905 1,836,598 1,872,305 4,137,406 7,846,309 occupied barely more than half the area assigned to it at the beginning. If the land taken from wheat had been cropped with one or both of the other cereals, the aggregate area would have remained about the same. This, however, was not the case, for a fairly See also:

• UNIFORM

The of British Cereals in England and Wales, 1875-1905. Year. Wheat. Barley. Oats. s. d. s. d. s. d. 1875 45 2 38 5 28 8 1876 46 2 35 2 26 3 1877 56 9 39 8 25 II 1878 46 5 40 2 24 4 1879 43 10 34 0 21 9 188o 44 4 33 I 23 I 1881 45 4 31 II 21 9 1882 45 I 31 2 21 I0 1883 41 7 31 10 21 5 1884 35 8 30 8 20 3 1885 32 10 30 r 20 7 1886 31 0 26 7 19 0 1887 32 6 25 4 16 3 1888 31 IQ 27 10 16 9 1889 29 9 25 10 17 9 1890 31 II 28 8 18 7, 1891 37 0 28 2 20 0 1892 30 3 26 2 '19 10 1893 26 4 25 7 18 9 I$94 22 10 24 6 17 r 1895 23 I 21 II 14 6 1896 26 2 22 II 14 9 1897 30 2 23 6 16 II 1898 34 0 27 2 18 5 1899 25 8 25 7 17 0 1900 26 II 24 II 17 7 1901 26 9 25 2 18 5 1902 28 I 25 8 20 2 1903 26 9 22 8 17 2 1904 28 4 22 4 16 4 1905 29 8 24 4 17 4 weekly average prices of English wheat in 1898 fluctuated between 48s. rd. and 25s. 5d. per quarter, the former being the highest weekly average since 1882. The minimum annual average was 22S. See also:

• ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick, rodda, stake)
• ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910)

8d. per quarter, and farmers naturally shrank from seeding the land freely with a crop which could not be grown except at a heavy loss. The result was that in the following year the wheat crop of the United Kingdom was harvested upon the smallest area on record—less than 11 million acres. In only one year, 1878, did the annual average price of English barley See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

1875 51,876,517 6,136,083 58,012,600 1880 55,261,924 10,558,312 65,820,236 1885 61,498,864 15,832,843 77,331,707 1890 60,474,180 15,773,336 76,247,516 1895 81,749,955 18,368,410 See also:

• IOO

Going back to 1869, it is found that the extent of wheat in that year was 3,981,989 acres or very little short of four million acres. The acreage of rye grown in the United Kingdom as a grain crop is small, the respective maximum and minimum areas during the period 1875-1905 having been 102,676 acres in 1894 and 47,937 acres in 1880. Rye is perhaps more largely grown as a green crop to be fed off by sheep, or cut green for soiling, in the spring months. Of corn crops other than cereals, beans and peas are both less cultivated than formerly. In the period 1875-1905 the area of beans in the United Kingdom fluctuated between 574,414 acres in 1875 and 230,429 acres in 1897, and that of peas between 318,410 acres in 1875 and 155,668 acres in 1901. The area of peas (175,624 acres in 1905) shrank by nearly one-half, and that of beans (256,383 acres in 1905) by more than one-half. Taking cereals and See also:

• PULSE

The area. withdrawn from corn-growing is not to be found under the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

4,144,374 These crops, therefore, which, except potatoes, are used mainly-for stock-feeding, have like the corn crops been grown on gradually diminishing areas. The land that has been lost to the plough is found to be still further augmented when an inquiry is instituted into the area devoted to clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The areas of five-year intervals are given in Table IV. Under the old Norfolk or four-course rotation (roots, barley, clover, wheat) land thus seeded with clover or grass seeds was intended to be ploughed up at the end of a year. Labour difficulties, low prices of produce, bad seasons and similar causes provided inducements for leaving the land in grass for two years, or over three years or more, before breaking it up for wheat. In many cases it would be decided to let such land remain under grass indefinitely, and thus it would no longer be enumerated in the Agricultural Returns as temporary grass land, but would pass into the See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

In the period 1875-1905 the extreme areas returned as " permanent pasture "-a term which, it should be clearly understood, does not indude heath or See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

The See also:

• COMPARATIVE

Beans are almost entirely confined to England, and this is even more the case with peas. The mangel crop also is mainly English, the summer in most parts of Scotland being neither long enough nor warm enough to bring it to maturity. The Produce of British Crops. Whilst the returns relating to the acreage of crops and the number of live stock in Great Britain have been officially collected in each year since 1866, the annual official estimates of the produce of the crops in the several sections of the kingdom do not extend back beyond 1885. The practice is for the Board of Agriculture to appoint local estimators, who report in the autumn as to the total production of the crops in the localities respectively assigned to them. By dividing the total production, say of wheat, in each .county by the number of acres of wheat as returned by the occupiers on June 4, the estimated average yield per acre is obtained. It is important to notice that the figures relating to 'total production and yield per acre are only estimates, and it is not claimed for. them that they are anything more. The fact that much of the wheat to which the figures apply is still in the stack after the publication of the figures shows that the latter are essentially estimates. The total produce of any crop in a given year must depend mainly upon the acreage grown, whilst the average yield per acre will be determined chiefly by the character of the season. In Table VII. are shown, in thousands the United Kingdom, 189o-1905-Thousands of Bushels. Year. Wheat.

Barley. Oats. Beans. Peas. 1890 75,994 80,794 171,295 11,86o 6313 1891 74,743 79,555 166,472 10,694 5777 1892 60,775 76,939 168,181 7,054 5028 1893 50,913 65,746 168,588 4,863 4756 1894 60,704 78,601 190,863 7,198 6229 1895 38,285 75,028 174,476 5,626 4732 1896 58,247 77,825 162,860 6,491 4979 1897 56,296 72,613 163,556 6,65o 5250 1898 74,885 74,731 172,578 7,267 4858 1899 67,261 74,532 166,14o 7,566 4431 1900 54,322 68,546. 165,137 7,469 4072 1901 53,928 67,643 161,175 6,154 4017 1902 58,278 74,439 184,184 7,704 5106 1903 48,819 65,310 172,941 7,535 4812 1904 37,920 62,453 176,755 5,901 4446 1905 60,333 65,004 166,286 8,262 4446 of bushels, the estimated produce of the corn crops of the United Kingdom in the years 1890-19o5. The largest area of wheltt in the period was that of 189o, and the smallest v'as that of 1904; the same two years are seen to have been respectively those of highest and lowest total produce. It is noteworthy that in 1895 the country produced about half as much wheat as in any one of the years 189o, 1891 and 1898. The produce of barley, like that of oats, is less irregular than that of wheat, the extremes for barley being 8o, 794,000 bushels (189o) and 62,453,000 bushels (1904), and those for oats 190,863,000 bushels (1894) and 161,175,000 bushels (1901). Similar details for potatoes, roots and hay, brought together in Table VIII., show that the Year. Potatoes. Turnips.

Mangels. Hay. 1890 4622 32,002 6709 14,466 1891 6090 29,742 7558 12,671 1892 5634 31,419 7428 11,567 1893 6541 31,110 5225 9,082 1894 4662 30,678 7310 15,699 1895 7065 29,221 6376 12,238 1896 6263 28,037 5875 11,416 1897 4107 29,785 7379 14,043 1898 6225 26,499 7228 15,916 1899 5837 20,370 7604 12,898 1900 4577 28,387 9650 13,742 1901 7043 25,298 9224 1 1,358 1902 5920 29,116 10,809 15,246 1903 5277 23,523 8212 14,955 1904 6230 28,033 8813 14,86o 1905 7186 26,563 9493 13,554 production of potatoes varies much from year to year. The imports of potatoes into the United Kingdom vary, to some extent inversely; thus, the low production in 1897 was accompanied by an increase of imports from 3,921,205 cwt. in 1897 to 6,751,728 cwt. in 1898. No very. great reliance can 'be placed upon the figures relating to turnips (which include swedes), as these are mostly fed to sheep on the ground, so that the estimates as to yield are necessarily vague. Mangels are probably more closely estimated, as these valuable roots are carted and stored for subsequent use for feeding stock. Under hay are included the produce of clover, sainfoin and rotation grasses, and also that of permanent meadow. The extent to which the annual production of the leading fodder crop may vary is shown in the table by the two consecutive years 1893 and 1894; from only nine million tons in the former year the production rose to up-wards of fifteen million tons in the latter, an increase of over spring and summer drought, like that of 1893, are exemplified in the circumstance that four corn crops and the two hay crops all registered very low average yields that year, viz. wheat 26•o8 bushels, barley 29.3o bushels, oats 38.14 bushels, beans 19.61 bushels, rotation hay 23.55 cwt., permanent hay 20.41 cwt. On the other hand, the season of 1898 was exceptionally favour-able to cereals and to hay. The effects of a prolonged autumn drought, as distinguished from spring and summer drought, are shown in the very low yield of turnips in 1899. Mangels are sown earlier and have a longer period of growth than turnips; if they become well established in the summer they are less susceptible to autumn drought. The hay made from clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation generally gives a bigger average yield than that from permanent grass land.

The mean values at the foot of the table-they are not, strictly speaking, exact averages-indicate the average yields per acre in the United Kingdom to be about 31 bushels of wheat, 33 bushels of barley, 40 bushels of oats, 28 bushels of beans, 26 bushels of peas, 44 tons of potatoes, 134 tons of turnips and swedes, 184 tons of mangels, 32 cwt. of hay from temporary grass, and 29 cwt. of hay from permanent grass. Although enormous single crops of mangels Barley and Oats-Bushels per acre. Periods. Periods. Wheat. Barley. Oats. 1885-1894 29.32 33.02 38.21 1886-1895 28.81 32.68 38.23 1887-1896 29.49 32.82 38.13 1888-1897 29.19 32.97 38.51 1889-1898 29.86 33.26 38.86 1890-1899 30.15 33.50 38.81 1891-1900 29.92 33.13 38.46 1892-1901 29.88 32.80 38.26 1893-1902 30'53 32'83 38'64 1894-1903 30'95 33.16 39.05 1895-1904 30.56 32.82 38.81 1896-1905 31.21 33.04 38.92 are s9metimes grown, amounting occasionally to Too tons per acre, the general average yield of 184 tons is about 5 tons more than that of turnips and swedes. Again, although from the richest old permanent meadow-lands very heavy crops of hay are taken season after season, the general average yield of permanent grass is about 3 cwt. of hay per acre less than that from clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The general average yields of the corn crops are not fairly comparable one with the other, because they are given by measure and not by See also:

• WEIGHT

The figure denoting the general average yield per acre of any class of crop needs re- See also:

• ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad juxtare, derived from juxta, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from justus, right)

. Peas. Pota- and Mangels. See also:

• ROTA, COURT OF

Tons. Cwt. Cwt. 26'33 32.09 38.67 22'98 22.62 5'64 13•II 16.44 29.08 25.21 1896 33.63 34.16 37.97 25'69 25.34 4.93 12.79 14'99 ' 27'95 24'14 1897 29.07 32'91 38'84 28.9, 27.55 , 13.90 18 .o3 32.53 30.71 3'47 1898 34.75 36.24 42.27 31.13 27.60 5.23 12.74 17.71 36'49 34.27 1899 32.76 34.64 40'57 30.19 27.22 4.82 9.97 17.41 31.04 29•II 1900 28.61 31.67 39.97 28'18 25.89 3'77 14.29 19'97 32.42 30'98 1901 30.93 31'70 39.35 24.29 25.97 5.81 12.95 19.37 28.98 23.85 1902 32.91 35.83 44'50 31'49 28.51. 4.92 15.35 20.85 35'29 32.57 1903 30'15 32.38 40.81 31.27 26.56 4'45 12.44 17'19 33.07 31'27 1904 26.97 31'25 40.80 23.23 25.75 5.24 14'83 18.57 33.43 31.04 Mean, 30.85 33'28 40.35 27.68 26.24 4.84 13.21 18.18 32.06 29.32 IO years 1905 32'88 34.79 40.38 32'33 25'71 5.86 14.19 19.91 32.24 28.37 crop is shrinking in area the tendency is to withdraw from it first the land least suited to its growth. The general average for the United Kingdom might then recede to rather less than 28 bushels of 6o lb per bushel, which was for a long time the accepted average—unless, of course, improved methods of cultivating and manuring the soil were to increase its general wheat-yielding capacity.' Crops and Cropping. The greater freedom of cropping and the less close adherence to the formal system of rotation of crops, which characterize the early years of the 2oth century, rest upon a scientific 'basis. Experimental inquiry has done much to enlighten the farmer as to the requirements of plant-life, and to enable him to see how best to meet these requirements in the case of field crops. He cannot afford to ignore the results that have been gradually accumulated—the truths that have been slowly established—at the agricultural experiment stations in various parts of the See also:

• WORLD

See also:

• GILBERT
• GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS
• GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603)
• GILBERT, ALFRED (1854– )
• GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904)
• GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843– )
• GILBERT, J
• GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889)
• GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA [" LOLA MONTEZ "] (1818-1861)
• GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751–1780)
• GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583)
• GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901)
• GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836– )

. 27 8 „ 1876-1883 . . 251 8 „ 1884-1891 . . 291 8 „ 1892-1899 . . 30 32 „ 1852-1883 . . 271 16 1884-1899 . . 30 48 ,, 1852-1899 . . . 28} The average of the first thirty-two years was thus 271 bushels per acre, of the last sixteen years 3o bushels, and of the whole forty-eight years 281 bushels. See J. B. Lawes and J. H.

Gilbert, Rothamsted See also:

• MEMOIRS

Nevertheless there are distinctions of result dependent on differences in the habits of the two plants, and in the conditions of their cultivation accordingly. In the British Isles wheat is, as a rule, sown in the autumn on a heavier soil, and has four or five months in which to. distribute its roots, and so it gets See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

Independently of the necessary See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

This result is doubtless largely dependent on the existence, the distribution and the condition of the appropriate microbes for the due infection of the different descriptions of plant, for the micro-organism that dwells symbiotically with one species is not identical with that whicb similarly dwells with another. It seems certain that success in any system involving a more extended growth of leguminous crops in rotations must be dependent on a considerable variation in the description grown. Other essential conditions of success will commonly include the liberal application of potash and phosphatic manures, and sometimes chalking or liming for the leguminous crop. As to how long the,leguminous crop should occupy the land, the extent to which it should be consumed on the land, or the manure from its consumption be returned, and under what conditions the whole or part of it should be ploughed in—these are points which must be decided as they arise in practice. It seems obvious that the lighter and poorer soils would benefit more than the heavier or richer soils by the extended growth of leguminous crops. Remarkable as Hellriegel's discovery was, it merely furnished the explanation of a fact which had been empirically established by the husbandman long before, and had received most intelligent application when the' old four-course (or Norfolk) rotation was devised. But it gave some impetus to the practice of green manuring with leguminous crops, which are equally capable with such a crop as mustard of enriching the soil in humus, whilst in addition they bring into the soil from the atmosphere a quantity of nitrogen available for the use. of subsequent crops of ariy kind. In See also:

• CANADA

The See also:

• LATE

So much, indeed, does the character of the herbage vary from plot to plot that the effect may fairly be described as kaleidoscopic. Repeated analyses have shown how greatly both the botanical constitution and the chemical composition of the mixed herbage vary according to the description of manure applied. They have further shown how dominant is the influence of season. Such, moreover, is the effect of different manures that the See also:

• GROSS

The opportunities which rotation cropping affords for the cleaning of the land from weeds is another distinct See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

It is equally true that, when under the influence of special local or other demand—proximity to towns, easy railway or other communication, for example—the products which would otherwise be retained on the farm are exported from it, the import of town or other manures is generally an essential condition of such practice: This system of free sale, indeed, frequently involves full compensation by purchased manures of some kind. Such deviations from the practice of merely selling grain and meat off the farm have much extended in recent years, and will probably continue to do so under the altered conditions of British agriculture, determined by very large imports of grain, increasing imports of meat and of other products of stock-feeding, and very large imports of cattle-food and other agricultural produce. More attention is thus being devoted to dairy produce, not only on grass farms, but on those that are mainly arable. The benefits that accrue from the practice of rotation are well illustrated in the results obtained from the investigations at Rothamsted into the See also:

• SIMPLE

Although, therefore, different, and sometimes very large, amounts of these typical mineral constituents are taken up by the various crops of rotation, there is no material export of any in the saleable products, excepting of phosphoric acid and of potash; and, so far at least as phosphoric acid is concerned, experience has shown that it may be advantageously supplied in purchased manures. Of nitrogen, the cereal crops take up and retain much less than any of the crops . alternated with them, notwithstanding the circumstance that the cereals are very characteristically benefited by nitrogenous manures. The root-crops, indeed, may contain two or more times as much nitrogen as either pf the cereals, cation of nitrogenous manures, natural or artificial. Under such conditions of supply, however, the root-crops, gross feeders as they are, and distributing a'very large extent of fibrous feeding root within the soil, avail themselves of a much larger quantity of the nitrogen supplied than the cereal crops would do in similar circumstances. This result is partly due to their period of See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

Harvest. Dry. Ash. gen. phut. Acid. Wheat, grain, 30 bushels . 1,800 1530 30 34 2'7 9.3 o•6 1•o 3.6 14.2 0.1 o•6 ,, straw . 3,158 2653 142 16 5.1 19.5 2.0 8.2 3.5 6.9 2.4 96.3 Total crop . 4,958 4183 172 50 7.8 28.8 2.6 9.2 7•I 21•I 2.5 96.9 Barley, grain, 40 bushels . 2,080 1747 46 35 2.9 9'8 I.1 1.2 4.0 16•o 0.5 11.8 straw 2,447 2080 III 14 3.2 25.9 3'9 8•o 2.9 4'7 3.6 56.8 Total crop . 4,527 3827 157 49 6.1 35.7 5.0 9.2 6.9 20.7 4.I 68.6 Oats, grain, 45 bushels 1,890 1625 51. 34 3.2 9.1 o•8 I.8 3.6 13•o 0.5 19.9. „ straw .

2,835 2353 140 18 4'8 37'0 4'6 9.8 5•I 6.4 6.I 65.4 Total crop - 4,725 3978 191 52 8•o 46.1 5.4 11.6 8.7 19.4 6.6 85.3 Maize, grain, 30 bushels 1,68o 1500 22 28 1.8 6.05 0.2 0.5 3'4 I0•0 0.2 0.5 stalks, &c. 2,208 1877 99 15 .. 29.8 .. .. .. I 8.0 Total crop 3,888 3377 I 2 I 43 •• ` 36.3 .. .. 18•o Meadow hay, II ton . 3,360 2822 203 49 5.7 50.9 9.2 32.1 14.4 12.3 14.6 56.9 Red Clover hay, 2 tons . 4,4$0 3763 258 98 9.4 83-4 5'1 90.1 28.2 24.9 • 1 7.0 Beans, grain, 30 bushels . 1,920 1613 58 78 4.4 24'3 0.6 2.9 4.2 22.8 1.1 0.4 „ straw . 2,240 1848 99 29 4.9 42.8 I.7' 26.3 5.7 6'3 6'9 Total crop .

4,160 3461 157 107 9.3 67.1 2.3 29'2 9.9 29.1 5.4 7.3 Turnips, root, 17 tons . 38,080 3126 218 61 15.2 Io8.6 17.0 25.5 5.7 22.4 • • 2.6 „ See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

Most of the nitrogen in the straw of the cereals, and a very large proportion of that of the much more highly nitrogen-yielding crops, returns to the land as manure, for the benefit of future cereals and other crops. As to the source of the nitrogen of the root-crops-the so-called " restorative crops "-these are as dependent as any crop that is grown on available nitrogen within the soil, which is generally supplied by the direct appli- See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

Lowest. Difference. Horses . . 2,116,800 in 1905 1,819,687 in 1875 295,113 Cattle . . 11,674,019 „ 1905 9,731,537 ,, 1877 1,942,482 Sheep . . 33,642,808 „ 1892 27,448,220 „ 1882 6,194,588 Pigs. . . 4,362,040 ,, 1890 2,863,488 ,, 188o 1,498,552 After 1892 cattle, which in that year numbered 1r,519,417, and sheep declined continuously for three years to the totals of 1895, the diminution being mainly the result of the memorable 'drought of 1893. Sheep, which numbered 32,571,018 in 1878, 'declined continuously to 27,448,220 in 1882-a loss of• over five million head in five years. This was chiefly attributable to the ravages of the liver fluke which began in the disastrously wet season of 1879. Pigs, being prolific breeders, fluctuate more widely in numbers than cattle or sheep, for the difference of 1,498,552 in their case represents one-third of the highest total, whereas the difference is less than one-seventh for horses, less than one-sixth for cattle, and less than one-fifth for sheep. The Year.

Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. I. 1875 1,819,687 10.162,787 33,491,948 3,495,167 s88o 1,929,680 9,871,153 30,239,620 2,863,488 1885 1,909,200 . 10,868,760 30,086,200 3,686,628 1890 11964,911 10,789,858 31,667,195 4,362,040 1895 2,112,207 10,753,314 29,774,853 4,238,870 1900 2,000,402 I1,454,902 31,054,547 3,663,669 1905 2,116,800 11,674,019 29,076,777 3,601,659 relative proportions- as distinguished from the actual numbers -in which stock are distributed over the several sections of the United Kingdom do not vary greatly from year to year. Table XIII., in which the totals for the United Kingdom include those for the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, illustrates the preponderance of the sheep-breeding industry in the drier climate of Great Britain, and of the cattle-breeding industry in the more humid atmosphere of Ireland. In Great Britain in 19o5, for • every head of cattle there were about four head of sheep, whereas in Ireland the cattle outnumbered the sheep. Again,' whilst ,Great Britain possessed only half as many cattle more than 1905. Horses. Cattle.

Sheep. Pigs. England . . 1,204,124 5,020,936 14,698,018 2,083,226 Wales . 161,923 738,789 3,534,967 211,479 Scotland . 206,386 1,227,295 7,024,21 I 130,214 Great Britain . 1,572,433 6,987,020 25,257,196 2,424,919 Ireland . . 534,875 4,645,215 3,749,352 1,164,316 United I 2,116,800 11,674,019 29,076,777 3,601,659 Kingdom Ireland, she possessed six times as many sheep. The cattle population of England alone slightly exceeded that of Ireland, but cattle are more at home on the broad plains of England than amongst the hills and mountains of Wales and Scotland, which are suitable for sheep. Hence, whilst in England sheep were not three times as numerous as cattle, in Wales they were nearly five times, and in Scotland nearly six times as many. Great Britain had twice as many pigs as Ireland, but the swine industry is mainly English and Irish, and England possessed more than six times as many pigs as Wales and Scotland together, the number in the last-named country being particularly small, 'One English county alone, See also:

• SUFFOLK
• SUFFOLK, CHARLES BRANDON, 1ST DUKE OF (c. 1484–'545)
• SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SUFFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1561-1626)
• SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE

The stock-breeders and graziers of the United Kingdom have, 'equally with the corn-growers, to See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

The column headed See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

The rate at. which the trade in imported frozen mutton in-creased as compared with the industry in home-grown mutton is illustrated in the figures published annually by Messrs W. Weddel and See also:

• COMPANY

The quantity imported in 1899 was See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

. Home- Imported. Year. Home- Imported. Year. 1885 322 47 1900 332 179 1890 339 92 1901 330 191 1895 319 157 1902 322 191 1896 329 164 1903 318 2101 1897 327 175 1904 311 185 1898 333 182 1905 312 195 1899 339 187 1906 313 207 populations of the United Kingdom. At the same time it, cannot be gainsaid that it has opened the way to See also:

• FRAUD (Lat. fraus, deceit)

Under the act; as supplemented by an order of the Board of Agriculture in 1905, there were in that year 26 scheduled places in England and To' in Scotland, or 36 altogether, from which returns were obtained. The numbers of cattle (both fat and store) weighed at scheduled places in 1893 and 19052 were respectively 7.59 and 18 % of those entering those markets. The numbers for Scotland are greater throughout than those for England, 72 % of the fat cattle entering the scheduled markets% Scotland in 19052 having been weighed, while in England the proportion was only 20 %. Little use is made of the weighbridge in selling store-cattle, sheep or swine. As the main object of the act is to obtain records of prices, it follows that only in so far as statements of the prices realized, together with the description of the animals involved, are obtained, is the full advantage of the statute secured. In 1905 the average price per cwt.. for fat cattle in Great Britain was 32s. rid. as compared with 35S. 2d. in 1900. Food-values and Early Maturity. In the feeding experiments which have been carried on at Rothamsted it has been shown that the amount consumed both for a given live weight of animal within a given time, and for the production of a given amount of increase, is, as current food-stuffs go, measurable more by the amounts they contain of digestible and available non-nitrogenous constituents than by the amounts of the digestible and available nitrogenous constituents they supply. The non-nitrogenous substance (the fat) in the increase in live weight of an animal is, at any rate ins great part, if not entirely, derived from the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food. Of the nitrogenous compounds in food, on the other hand, only a small proportion of the whole consumed is finally stored up in the increase of the animal—in other words, a very large amount of nitrogen passes through the See also:

• BODY

It has further been shown that, in the exercise of force by animals, there is a greatly increased See also:

• EXPENDITURE

This body was instituted in x798 as the Smithfield Cattle and Sheep Society, the title being changed to that of the Smithfield Club in 1802. The original object—the supply'of the cattle markets of Smithfield and other, places with the cheapest and best meat—is still kept strictly in view. The See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

An important step in this direction was taken in 1896, when the See also:

• SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864)

In the 1895 show, out of 356 entries of cattle, there were seven beasts of more than a ton in weight. They were all three to four years old, and comprised four Shorthorns (See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

I qr. 25 lb in the case of a Shorthorn See also:

• STEER, PAUL WILSON (186o– )

minoids. etc. Cotton cake (decorticated) 691 374 18 128 158 13 (undecorticated) 422 150 13 50 177 32 Linseed cake 655 230 II 103 266 45 Peas 747 499 5 B eans ' 733 196 28 112 2 446 51 Wheat' . . 600 196 13 15 441 to Oats 81 7 45 26 Barley 715 70 4 19 , 607 15 Maize 786 73 6 '44 651 12 See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

The only exception was in the case of the slowly-maturing Cheviot and mountain breeds, for which the second class was for wether sheep of any age above twelve months. Of prize sheep at the centenary show the largest average daily gain was 0.77 lb per head given by See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Tables are constructed showing the fasted live weight, the carcase weight, and the weight of the various parts that are separated from and not included with the carcase. An abundance of lean meat and a moderate amount of fat well distributed constitutes a better carcase, and a more economical one for the consumer, than a carcase in which gross accumulations of fat are prominent. To add to the educational value of the display, information as to the methods of feeding would be desirable, as it would then be possible to correlate the quality of the meat with the mode of its manufacture. A point of high practical interest is the ratio of carcase weight to fasted live weight, and in the case of prize-winning carcases these ratios usually fluctuate within very narrow limits. At the 1899 show, for example, the highest proportion of the carcase weight to live weight was 68 % in the case of an Aberdeen-Angus steer and of a Cheviot wether, whilst the lowest was 61 %, afforded alike by a Shorthorn-Sussex cross-bred See also:

• HEIFER

What has thus voluntarily been done in England would in most other countries be left to the state, or would not be attempted at all. It is hardly necessary to say that the Shire Horse Society has never received a See also:

• PENNY (Mid. Eng. peni or peny, from O. Eng. form penig, earlier penning and pending; the word appears in Ger. Pfennig and Du. penning; it has been connected with Du. pand, Ger. Pfand, and Eng. " pawn,". the word meaning a little pledge or token, or with G
• PENNY, GIANFRANCESCO (1488–1528)

Other cattle societies, all well caring for the interest of their respective breeds, are the Shorthorn Society of Great Britain and Ireland, the See also:

• LINCOLNSHIRE

By the Diseases of Animals Act 1896 (59' & 6o Vict., c. 15) it was provided that cattle, sheep and pigs imported into the United Kingdopl should be slaughtered at the place of landing. The effect was to reduce to a minimum the See also:

• RISK

When, after the introduction of cattle plague or rinderpest in 1865, the proposal was made to resort to the extreme remedy of slaughter in order to check the ravages of a disease which was pursuing its course with ruinous results, the idea was received with public indignation and denounced as barbarous. Views have undergone profound modification since, then, and the most drastic remedy has come to be regarded as the most effective, and in the long run the least costly. The Cattle Diseases Prevention Act 1866 (29 & 30 Vict. C. 2) made compulsory the slaughter of diseased cattle, and permitted the slaughter of cattle which had been exposed to infection, compensation being provided out of the rates. The Act 30 & 31 Vict. c. 125, 1867, is of See also:

• HISTORICAL

The re-introduction of cattle plague into England in 1877 led to the passing of the Act 41 & 42 Vict. C. 74, 1878, which repealed the act of 1869, and affirmed as a principle the landing of foreign animals for slaughter only, though free importation or quarantine on the one hand and See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

In 1892 by the Act 55 & 56 Vict. c. 47 power was given to the Board of Agriculture to use the sums voted on account of pleuro-pneumonia for paying the costs involved in dealing with foot-and-mouth disease; under this act the board could order the slaughter of diseased animals and of animals in contact with these, and could pay compensation for animals so slaughtered. Under the provisions of the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act 1893 (56& 57 Vict. C. 43) swine fever in Great Britain was, from the •1st of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

The Diseases of Animals. Under the Diseases of Animals Acts 1894 and 1896 weekly returns are issued by the Board of Agriculture of outbreaks of anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders (including farcy), pleuro-pneumonia, rabies and swine fever in the counties of Great Britain; also monthly returns of outbreaks of sheep-scab. Cattle plague, or rinderpest, has not been recorded in Great Britain since 1877. In that year there were 47 outbreaks distributed over five counties and involving 263 head of cattle. The course of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain between 1877 and 1905 inclusive is told in Table XX., from which the 1877-1905. Out- Animals attacked. Year. Counties. breaks. Cattle. Sheep. Swine. Other Animals.

1877 55 858 5,640 7,405 2,099 1878 45 235 912 8,609 245 1879 29 137 261 15,681 5 188o 38 1,461 20,918 9,572 1,886 2 1881 49 4,833 59,484 117,152 6,330 8o 1882 49 1,970 23,973 11,412 2,564 I 1883 75 18,732 219,289 217,492 24,332 32 1884 55 949 12,186 14,174 1,860 I 1885 lo 30 354 34 30 1886 I I IO 1892 15 95 1,248 3,412 107 1893 2 2 30 1894 3 3 7 261 1900 9 21 214 50 2 1901 3 12 43 626 1902 I I 2 I18 years 1887 to 189r, 1895 to 1899 and 1903 to 1905 inclusive are omitted, because there was no outbreak during those periods. The disease is seen to have attained its maximum virulence in 1883. Sheep-scab is a loathsome skin disease due to an acarian parasite. Table XXI. shows the number of outbreaks and the number of counties over which they were distributed from 1877 to 1905. The recorded outbreaks were more numerous in the decade of the 'nineties than in that of the 'eighties, though possibly this may have been due to greater official activity in the later period. The largest number of sheep attacked was 1877-1905. Year. Counties. Outbreaks. Year. Counties. Outbreaks.

1877 77 3214 1890 75 1506 188o 70 1556 1895 88 3092 1885 69 1512 1900 78 1939 1905 73 918 68,715 (in 1877). It is compulsory on owners to notify the authorities as to the existence of scab amongst their sheep. By the Diseases of Animals Act (1903) powers to prescribe the dipping of sheep, irrespective of the presence or otherwise of sheep scab, were conferred upon the Board of Agriculture. An inspector of the board or of the local authority was by the same act authorized to enter premises and examine sheep. Each year the disorder runs a similar course, the outbreaks dwindling to a minimum in the summer months, June to August, and attaining a maximum in the winter months, December to February. It is chiefly in the " flying " flocks and not in the breeding flocks that the disease is rife, and it is so easily communicable that a drove of scab-infested sheep passing along a road may leave behind them traces sufficient to set up the disorder in a drove-of healthy sheep that may follow. For its size and in relation to its sheep population Wales harbours the disease to a far greater extent than the other divisions of Great Britain. The fatal disease known as anthrax did not form the subject of official returns previous to the passing of the Anthrax Order of 1886. Isolated outbreaks are of common occurrence, and from the totals for Great Britain given in Table XXII. it would appear that there is little prospect of the eradication of this bacterial disorder. Glanders (including farcy) was the subject during the twenty-four years 1877–1900 of outbreaks in Great Britain ranging between a minimum of 518 in 1877 and a maximum of 1657 in 1892; in the former year 758 horses were attacked, and in the latter 3001. A recrudescence of the disease marked the closing years of the 19th century, the outbreaks having been 748 in 1898,853 in 1899 and 1119 in 'goo. The counties of Great Britain over which the annual outbreaks have been distributed have ranged between 24 in 1890 and 52 in 1879.

As a matter of fact, 1895-1905. Animals attacked. Year. Counties. Outbreaks. Cattle. Sheep. Swine. Horses. 1895 66 434 604 158 140 32 1896 64 488 632 34 200 38 1897 67 433 521 39 284 38 1898 73 556 634 22 161 39 1899 67 534 634 69 253 30 1900 74 571 668 40 204 44 1901 63 651 708 76 152 35 1902 71 678 746 50 192 44 1903 78 767 809 48 234 51 1904 77 1049 1115 62 365 47 1905 84 970 1001 53 210 53 however, the disease is strongly centred upon the See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

The disease was very rife in 1895, but the extensive application of the muzzling restrictions of the Board of Agri-culture was accompanied by so steady a diminution in the 1887-1902. Year. Counties. Cases. Year. Counties. Cases. 1887 28 217 1895 29 672 1888 19 16o 1896 41 438 1889 20 312 1897 30 151 1890 20 I29 1898 10 17 1891 17 79 1899 4 9 1892 12 38 1900 2 6 1893 18 93 1901 I I 1894 17 248 1902 4 13 prevalence of the disease, that it was thought the latter had been extirpated. The entire revocation of the muzzling order, which accordingly followed, proved, however, to be premature, and it became necessary to reimpose it in the districts where it had last been operative, namely, certain parts of South Wales. No cases were reported in 1903, 1904 or 1905. Pleuro-pneumonia in Great Britain was dealt with by the local authorities up to the year 189o. Between 1870 and 1889 the annual outbreaks had ranged between a minimum of 312 in 1884 and a maximum of 3262 in 1874, the largest number of cattle attacked in any one year being 7983 in 1872.

The largest number of counties over which the outbreaks were distributed was 72 in 1873. On the 1st of September 1890 the Board of Agriculture assumed powers with respect to pleuro-pneumonia under the Diseases of Animals Act of that year. Their See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

Counties. Outbreaks Swine slaughtered as confirmed. diseased, or as having been exposed to infection. 1894 73 .5682 56,296 1895 73 6305 69,931 1896 77 5166 79,586 1897 74 2155 40,432 1898 72 2514 43,756 1899 71 2322 30,797 1900 62 1940 17,933 1901 71 3140 15,237 1902 67 1688 8,263 1903 63 1478 7,933 1904 64 1196 5,603 1905 58 817 3,876 of swine within such areas is prohibited, much inconvenience to trade resulting from restrictions of this kind. Frequently, more-over, the exhibition of pigs at agricultural shows has to be abandoned in consequence of these swine-fever. regulations. The Trade in Live Stock between Ireland and Great Britain. The compulsory slaughter at the place of landing does not extend to animals shipped from Ireland into Great Britain, and this is a matter of the highest importance to Irish stock-breeders, who find their best market close at hand on the east of St George's Channel. Table See also:

• XXV

Pigs. Horses. 1891 630,802 893,175 503,584 33,396 1892 624,457 1,080,202 500,951 32,481 1893 688,669 1,107,960 456,571 30,390 1894 826,954 957,101 584,967 33,589 1895 791,607 652,578 547,220 34,560 1896 681,56o 737,306 610,589 39,856 1897 746,012 804,515 695,307 38,422 1898 803,362 833,458 588,785 38,804 1899 772,272 871,953 688,553 42,087 1900 745,519 862,263 715,202 35,606 1901 642,638 843,325 596,129 25,607 1902 959,241 1,055,802 637,972 25,260 1903 897,645 825,679 569,920 27,7t9 1904 772,363 739,266 505,080 27,500 1905 749,131 700,626 363,823 30,723 Most of' the pigs sent from Ireland into Great Britain are fat, the store pigs accounting for less than one-tenth of the total number. The returns from Ireland under the Diseases of Animals Acts 1894 and 1896 are less significant than those of Great Britain. Thus, in the year ending June 1905, they included' 4 outbreaks of anthrax, 219 of swine-fever and 343 of sheep-scab, while there were no cases of rabies. Compared with the export trade in live stock from Ireland to Great Britain the reciprocal trade from Great Britain to Ireland is small, and is largely restricted to animals for breeding purposes. Owing to the reappearance of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain early in 1900 the importation of cattle, sheep, goats and swine therefrom into Ireland was temporarily suspended by the five years 1896-1900 of £1,017i000 as against £935,801 over the five years 1901-1905. To these sums the value of horses alone contributed about three-fourths, See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Sheep. Pigs. Other Animals. 1900 30,038 2,742 4,934 435 75,642 1901 27,612 1,648 2,761 378 68,012 1902 30,032 2,428 3,596 515 60,941 1903 34,798 2,736 5,579 776 52,095 1904 32,955 3,311 8,142 732 50,873 1905 47,708 3,938 8,378 931 50,307 £ £ £ £ £ 1900 681,927 118,337 53,306 3032 45,241 1901 605,699 61,812 25,727 3437 45,476 1902 635,661 96,153 29,069 5053 56,691 1903 734,598 140,244 67,758 7053 48,335 1904 581,339 146,210 88,421 7850 43,868 1905 875,647 190,406 133,413 8024 41,061 is not large it is of considerable importance to stock-breeders, as it is a frequent occurrence for buyers for export-to Argentina, Australasia, Canada, the United States and elsewhere-to bid freely at the sale rings, and often to pay the highest prices, thus stimulating the sales and encouraging the breeding of the best types of native stock. Details for the six years 1900-1905 are summarized in Table See also:

• XXVI

In 1879, at Kilburn, the competition was of railway waggons to convey perishable goods long distances at low temperatures. In 188o at See also:

• CARLISLE
• CARLISLE, EARLS OF

In 189o, at See also:

• PLYMOUTH
• PLYMOUTH, EARLS OF

In the years 1903 and 1904 petrol See also:

• MOTORS, ELECTRIC

For the same reason potato-planting and potato-lifting machines were also in :greater requisition. Agricultural Population and Wages. The last half of the r9th century witnessed a remarkable diminution of the British rural population. The decrease has assumed serious proportions since 1871, as before that date the supply of rural labour exceeded the demand. A large number of agricultural labourers were thus only in partial employment, and their withdrawal from the land was of minor importance as compared with the shrinkage in the number of those permanently employed. The following tables indicate the extent of rural depopulation:— _ Number of " Persons engaged in Agriculture" in the United Kingdom, 1851–1901. 1851. 1861. 1871. 3,453,500 , 3,080,500 2,744,000 2,573,900 2,394,500 2,262,600 The number of " agricultural labourers and shepherds," which affords a more precise See also:

• INDEX

~ 1881. 1891. 190I. The decrease in the demand for labour is attributable chiefly to the reduction of the cultivated area and the laying down to pasture of land once under the plough, and to the increasing use of agricultural machinery. It may, however, be noticed that the period 1850–1903 was marked by a steady increase of the cash wages of the farm labourer, as indicated in the following table from the Report on the Earnings of Agricultural Labourers issued by the Board of Trade in 1905. Average Weekly Cash Wages of ordinary Agricultural Labourers employed on certain Farms in England and Wales. Year. England and Wales, Eastern counties, 69 farms. 12 farms. s. d. s. d. 1850 9 31 8 8 1855 ro III II 5 1860 ro II ro 8 1865 II 3 ro 5 187o II 101 II II 1875 13 7 12 III 188o 13 21 12 I 1885 13 I II 5 1890 13 OI II. OI 1895 13 21 II o 1900 14 51 13 II 1903 14 7 13 21 (See,also ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS.) Agricultural Education.

In Great Britain agricultural education as a whole lacks the See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

}See also:

• LANCASHIRE

The first three named are private establishments. The county councils also expend sums varying at their own discretion on instruction in dairy-work, poultry-keeping, farriery and veterinary science, See also:

• HORTICULTURE
• HORTICULTURE (Lat. hortus, a garden)

Experimental farms are attached to the colleges. The facilities for intermediate are far inferior to those for higher agricultural education. Schools for farmers' sons and daughters, and others, answering to the &coles praliques d'agriculture (see See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

Cork), where farm apprentices are received and instructed.