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NEW JERSEY

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Originally appearing in Volume V19, Page 513 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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NEW See also:

JERSEY , one of the See also:Middle See also:Atlantic states of the See also:American See also:Union, lying between 410 21' 22.6" and 38° 55' 40" N. See also:lat., and 75° 35' and 73° 53' 39" W. See also:long. It is bounded, N., by the See also:state of New See also:York; E., by the See also:Hudson See also:river, which separates the state from New York, and by the Atlantic Ocean; and S. and W. by the See also:Delaware See also:Bay and river, which See also:separate New Jersey from Delaware and See also:Pennsylvania. All the boundaries except the See also:northern are natural. New Jersey has an extreme length, N. and S., of 166 m., an extreme width, E. and W., of 57 m., and a See also:total See also:area of 8224 sq. m., of which 710 sq. m. are See also:water-See also:surface. Physiography.—There are within the state four distinct topographic belts—the Appalachian, the See also:Highlands, the Triassic See also:Low-See also:land and the Coastal See also:Plain. The folded Appalachian See also:belt crosses the N.W. corner of the state, and includes the Kittatinny See also:Mountain and Valley. The mountain has a See also:north-See also:east-See also:south-See also:west trend, See also:crossing the Delaware river at the Delaware Water See also:Gap and continuing S.W. into Pennsylvania. In width the range varies from 4 or 5 M. in the N. to about 2 M. in the S. Its western See also:foot lies along the Delaware river, which for some distance flows parallel with the range, and has an See also:altitude of about 400 ft. above the See also:sea at See also:Port Jervis, where it enters the state, and of about 300 ft. at the Water Gap, where it leaves it. Where the See also:crest of the See also:ridge enters the state its See also:elevation is 1539 ft.; at High Point, it m. S.W. the ridge attains a height of 1803 ft., the highest point within the state. A See also:short distance S.W. of this point, in a depression in the mountain crest, is See also:Lake Marcia, at an elevation of 1570 ft.

Beyond Culver's Gap the mountain again narrows to a ridge, and for a portion of its length it is See also:

double-crested. On the eastern See also:side the slope is so abrupt as to make ascent difficult and at places impossible, but the western slope, on See also:account of a See also:dip of the See also:rock to the N.W., is more See also:gradual. The eastern foot has a very See also:uniform altitude of from 900 to 1000 ft. above the sea. The crest of the ridge is from 600 to 1200 ft. W. of the foot, and from 450 to 600 ft. above it. At the Water Gap the ridge is cut through to its See also:base, and the Delaware river flows through the opening. This gap, 900 ft. wide at the base and 4500 ft. wide at the See also:top, with sides rising very abruptly to a height of 1200 ft. and more, is an impressive sight. The Kittatinny Valley, S.E. of and parallel to the Kittatinny Range, is about 40 M. long and 12 M. wide and has an See also:average elevation of 700 ft. Its western margin is from 900 to loon ft. above the sea, and its eastern border is from 400 to 500 ft. See also:lower. The See also:floor of the valley is very undulating, and contains numerous small streams, whose divides are from 700 to 900 ft. above the sea. South-east of the Kittatinny Valley, and parallel with it, lies the second topographic belt, the Highlands. This region embraces an area of 900 sq. m., having a length, N.E. and S.W., of 6o m., and a width varying from 9 to t8 m.

It consists of an upland See also:

plateau now dissected by streams into a See also:series of hills and ridges, and corresponds to the See also:Piedmont Belt farther to the S.W. and to the upland region of See also:southern New See also:England. The average elevation of the Highlands is about moo ft.; the highest point, between Canisteer and See also:Vernon, in See also:Sussex See also:county, being 1496 ft. The third belt, called the Triassic See also:Lowland, occupies about one-fifth of the surface of the state. Its N.W. border is marked by a See also:line See also:drawn S.W. across the state through Pompton, See also:Morristown, See also:Lebanon and Highbridge to the Delaware; its S.E. border by a line drawn from See also:Woodbridge to Trenton. The surface is irregular, with altitudes ranging from about sea-level to 900 ft. A noteworthy feature of this area is the series of See also:trap rock ridges, between which the See also:Passaic river makes its irregular way through a region of See also:flat bottom lands. On the N. E. border of the Lowland, one of these trap ridges lines the western See also:bank of the Hudson river for about 25 m., and is known as the Palisade Ridge, or simply the Palisades, because of the scenic effect produced by the columnar jointing and steep eastern See also:wall of the trap See also:sheet. To the W. the slope of the ridge is very See also:gentle. The Palisades extend from a point N. of the New York boundary as far S. as See also:Weehawken, their height gradually decreasing southward. A slope of debris occurs at the E. base of the Palisade Ridge, but the See also:summit is covered with trees. The trap formation extends to the Kill See also:van Kull Channel, and includes, among other ridges, the so-called First and Second Watchung (or See also:Orange) Mountains W. of the See also:group of suburbs known as the " Oranges," but S. of Weehawken it has no scenic attractiveness.

With the exception of the ridges, the Triassic Low-land N. of the Raritan river is usually below 200 ft. in altitude; S. of the Raritan the See also:

topography of this belt is similar to the northern portion, but much of the area is over 200 ft. above the sea. South-east of the Triassic Lowland lies the See also:fourth topographic belt, the Coastal Plain, containing an area of 4400 sq. m., or slightly more than one-See also:half the entire surface of the state. This belt; bordered on the E., S. and W. by water, is highest near its centre and lowest along its margins. It is See also:free from mountainous ridges, but there are a number of isolated hills, such as the Navesink Highlands (259 ft.) in See also:Monmouth county. One-third of the Coastal Plain is below 5o ft. in altitude; two-fifths are between 5o and 10o ft.; and somewhat more than a fourth of the area is over too ft. above sea-level. The total area of the belt as high as 200 ft. above the sea does not exceed 15 sq. m. About one-eighth of the area consists of tidal See also:marsh, lying chiefly between the long sandy ridges or barrier beaches of the Atlantic See also:coast and the mainland. The width of the marsh varies from t to 6 m., being least in the extreme N. and S. and greatest near the mouths of streams. There is also a marsh along Delaware Bay, unprotected by a See also:beach. The See also:waters between these beaches and the mainland are gradually filling with sediment and changing into tidal marsh. In addition to the stretches of marsh along the coast, the eastward-flowing See also:rivers of the Coastal Plain are fringed with large areas of swamp land, some of which is well forested. For the entire state the average elevation is 250 ft., with 4100 sq. m. below See also:loo ft.; 2100 sq. m. between 100 and 500 ft.; 1400 sq. m. between 500 and 1000 ft.; and 215 sq. m. between loon and 1500 ft.

The four topographic belts of the state correspond very closely to the outcrops of its See also:

geological formations; the rocks of the Appalachian belt being of Palaeozoic See also:age; the formation of the Highlands, Archaean; that of the Triassic Lowland, Triassic; that of the irregular hills of the Coastal Plain, Cretaceous and See also:Tertiary. The See also:great terminal See also:moraine of the glacial See also:epoch crosses the N.E.-S.W. topographic belts of the state, in an irregular line See also:running W. and N.W., from Staten See also:Island, N.Y. North of the morainic belt the effect of the glaciation is seen in the irregular courses of the streams, the numerous lakes and See also:freshwater marshes and the falls and rapids along those streams displaced by the glaciers from their former courses. The effect of glaciation on the See also:soil is noted in a later See also:paragraph. The Delaware river, from its junction with the Neversink See also:Creek to the capes, flows along the western and southern See also:borders of the state for a distance of 245 m., and has a total drainage area in New Jersey of 2345 sq. m. Of equal importance is the Hudson, whose lower waters, forming the north-eastern boundary of New Jersey for a distance of 22 m., drain a very small See also:part of the state, but have contributed materially to the state's commercial develop-ment. The streams lying wholly within the state are relatively unimportant. Of the tributaries to the Delaware river the northern-most is Flat See also:Brook, 25 m. long, draining an area of 65 sq. m. W. of the Kittatinny Mountain. The Kittatinny Valley is drained by Paulins Kill and the Pequest river in the E. and S.E., and by the Walkill river in the N.E. Of the streams of the Highlands and the Triassic Lowland, the Passaic river is the most important. Rising in the N.E.—in the southern part of See also:Morris county—it pursues a winding north-easterly course, passing through a gap in the trap rock at Little Falls, and by means of a cascade and a mile of rapids descends 40 ft.

At See also:

Paterson, 3 M. farther, the stream passes through a See also:crevasse in the trap rock and has a sheer fall of 70 ft. (the Great Falls of the Passaic)." The stream then makes a See also:sharp See also:bend south-See also:ward and empties•into See also:Newark Bay.' The Passaic and its small tributaries—the Whippany, Rockaway, Pequanac, Wanaque, See also:Saddle and Ramapo—drain an area of about 950 sq. m. On account of the rapid fall of its tributaries, the union of so many of them with the See also:main stream near its middle course and the obstructions to the flow of the water in the lower course, the Passaic is subject to disastrous floods. In 1903 a heavy rainfall caused a See also:flood which continued from the 8th to the 19th of See also:October and destroyed not less than $7,000,000 See also:worth of See also:property. Another, which continued from the 25th of See also:February to the 9th of See also:March 1902, destroyed property valued at $1,000,000 or more, and there were less disastrous floods in 1882 and 1896.3 The See also:Hackensack river enters the state about 5 m. W. of the Hudson river, flows almost parallel with that stream, and empties into Newark Bay, having a length of 34 M. and a drainage area of 201 sq. m. The Raritan river, flowing eastwardly through the centre of the state, is the largest stream lying wholly within New Jersey, and drains 1105 sq. m. Commercially, however, this stream is less important than the Passaic. In the southern half of the state the drainage is See also:simple, and the streams are unimportant, flowing straight to the Delaware or the Atlantic. The westward streams are only small creeks; the eastward and southward streams, however, on account of the wider slope, have greater length. Among the latter are the See also:Maurice river, 33 M. long, emptying into Delaware Bay; and the Great See also:Egg Harbor river, 38 m. long, and the Mullica, 32 M. long, emptying into the Atlantic. In the northern part of the state, and especially among the Highlands, are numerous lakes, which are popular places of resort during the summer months.

Of these the largest and the most frequented are Lake Hopatcong, an irregular See also:

body of water in Morris and Sussex counties, and See also:Greenwood Lake, lying partly in New York and partly in New Jersey. See also:Fauna and See also:Flora.—The fauna of New Jersey does not differ materially from that of the other Middle Atlantic states. Large See also:game has almost disappeared. The red, or See also:Virginia, See also:deer and the See also:grey See also:fox are still found in circumscribed localities; and of the smaller mammals, the See also:squirrel, chipmunk, See also:rabbit, See also:raccoon and See also:opossum are still numerous. Among game birds are various See also:species of ducks, the See also:quail, or " Bob See also:White," and the See also:woodcock. The waters of the coast and bays abound in See also:shad, See also:menhaden, bluefish, weak-See also:fish (squeteague), clams and oysters. The interior streams are stocked with See also:trout, See also:black See also:bass and See also:perch. The conditions of plant growth are varied. In the northern and north central parts of the state, where the soil consists partly of glacial See also:drift, the species have a wider range than is the See also:case farther S., where the soil is more uniform. New Jersey is a See also:meeting ground for many species which have their See also:principal See also:habitat farther N. or farther S., and its flora therefore may be divided into a northern and a southern. Still another class, and the most clearly marked of all, is the flora of the beaches, See also:salt marshes and meadows. The total woodland area of the state is about 3234 sq. m.

Two distinct types of See also:

forest are recognized, with the usual transition See also:zone between them. South and east of a line drawn approximately from Seabright to Glassboro, and thence southward to Delaware Bay, is a nearly level, sandy region known as " The Pines." This is the great forest area of the state; it contains about 1,200,000 acres of woodland, practically continuous, and portions of it still but sparsely inhabited. The See also:original forest has been entirely removed, but a See also:young growth of the same See also:tree species, chiefly See also:pitch See also:pine with a variety of oaks, replaces it. Within " The Pines," immediately north of the Mullica river, lies an area of about 20,000 acres called " The Plains." These are sparsely clothed with prostrate pitch pine, scrub See also:oak and See also:laurel. Tree forms are entirely absent. The cause of this See also:condition is still undetermined. Along the streams in this See also:section are many swamps, valuable for the white See also:cedar that they produce, or when cleared, for See also:cranberry bogs. The northern part of the state is much more rugged, i As the waters of the stream have been diverted into See also:mill races, the river very seldom makes this leap in its natural channel. The See also:power thus generated has been largely instrumental in creating the See also:city of Paterson (.v. . 2 The total length of the Passaic is about loo m., but its course is so irregular that the distance in a straight line from its source to its mouth is only about 15 m. 3 See G. B.

Hollister and M. O. See also:

Leighton, The Passaic Flood of 1902 (See also:Washington, 1903), and M. O. Leighton, The Passaic Flood of 1903 (Washington, 1904)., being See also:numbers 88 and 92 of the Water See also:Supply and See also:Irrigation Papers of the U.S. Geological Survey. and the forests are chiefly of See also:chestnut and various species of oak. Though much broken by farms and other elements of culture they aggregate about 740,000 acres. New Jersey's forests have suffered much from See also:fire, but with the exception of " The Plains " the soil everywhere is well adapted to tree growth. A comparatively mild See also:climate and See also:good See also:market facilities increase the potential value of the whole woodland area. The state maintains a Forest See also:Commission whose See also:chief concern is to See also:control the fires and thereby give value to private holdings. In this effort it is meeting with consider-able success.

The state is also acquiring, and maintaining as demonstration acres and public parks, forest reserves in various parts of the state. The five reserves now held are in Atlantic, See also:

Burlington and Sussex counties and aggregate 9899 acres.' Climate.—Between the extreme northern and southern sections of the state there is a greater variation in climate than would naturally result from their difference in See also:latitude. This is due to the proximity of the ocean in the S. and to the relatively high altitudes in the N. Near Cape May See also:fruit trees See also:bloom two or three See also:weeks earlier than in the Highlands. The mean See also:annual temperature ranges from 49.2° F. at See also:Dover, in the N., to 55.4° at See also:Bridgeton, in the S. The average date of the first killing See also:frost at Dover is the 4th of October, and of the last, the loth of May; at Atlantic City, on the sea-coast, these See also:dates are respectively the 4th of See also:November and the 1 i th of See also:April. At Dover the mean annual temperature is 49° the mean for the See also:winter is 28°, with an extreme minimum recorded of -13°; and the mean for the summer is 70°, with an extreme maximum recorded of 102°. At Atlantic City the mean annual temperature is 52°; for the winter it is 34°, with an extreme of -7°; and for the summer, 70°, with an extreme of 99°. At See also:Vineland, a southern interior See also:town, the mean annual temperature is 530; for the winter it is 330, with an extreme of -13°; and for the summer, 740, with an extreme of 105°. These records of temperature afford a striking See also:illustration of the moderating See also:influence of the ocean upon the extremes of summer and winter. On account of the proximity to the sea, New Jersey has a more equable climate than have some of the states in the same latitude farther west. During the summer months the See also:general course of the See also:wind along the sea-coast is interrupted about midday by an incoming current of See also:air, the " sea See also:breeze," which gradually increases until about three o'See also:clock in the afternoon, and then gradually lessens until the offshore wind takes its See also:place.

As the See also:

heat is thus made less oppressive along the coast, the beaches of New Jersey have rapidly built up with towns and cities that have become popular summer resorts—among the best known of these are Long See also:Branch, See also:Asbury See also:Park, Ocean See also:Grove, Atlantic City (also a winter resort) and Cape May. Among the interior resorts are See also:Lakewood, a fashionable winter resort, and Lake Hopatcong, and Greenwood Lake and surrounding regions, much frequented in the summer. In the summer the prevailing winds throughout the state are from the S.W.; in the winter, from the N.W. The normal annual precipitation is 47.7 in., varying from 46.6 in. on the sea-coast to 49.1 in. in the Highlands and the Kittatinny Valley. Precipitation is from I to 3 in. greater in the summer than in the other seasons, which differ among themselves very little in the average amount of rainfall. From See also:December to March, inclusively, part of the precipitation is in the See also:form of See also:snow. In the extreme S. there is more See also:rain than snow in the winter; but no part of the state is free from snow storms. In the summer See also:thunder storms are frequent, but are generally See also:local in extent, and are much more See also:common in the afternoon and See also:early evening than in the See also:morning. Soils.—The soils of the state exhibit great variety. Those of the northern and central sections are made up in part of glacial drift; those of the S. are sandy or loamy, and are locally enriched by deposits of See also:marl. The most fertile soils of the state See also:lie in the See also:clay and marl region, a belt from lo to 20 M. wide extending across the state in a general south-See also:westerly direction from Long Branch to See also:Salem. South of this belt the soils are generally sandy and are not very fertile except at altitudes of less than 50 ft., where they are loamy and of alluvial origin.

See also:

Agriculture.—In 1900 very little more land was under cultivation than in 1850, the total acreage for these years being respectively 2,840,966 and 2,752,946. The number of farms, however, increased from 23,905 to 34,294, and the average See also:size of the farms decreased from 115.2 acres to 82 acres, an indication that agriculture gradually became more intensive. In 1900, 22 % of the farms contained from 20 to 50 acres, 48'3%, 50-175 acres and only 7.8% contained over 175 acres. Farms were smallest in Hudson county, where the average size was 7.9 acres, and largest in Sussex county, where the average size was 143.4 acres. The counties with the largest total acreage were Burlington (343,096), Sussex (256,896) and Hunterdon (248,733). Between 1880 and 1900 the percentage of farms operated by owners decreased from 75.4 to 70.1; the per- t The amount of See also:timber cut within the state is very small. Before the introduction of See also:coal and See also:coke as See also:fuel in the forges and furnaces the cutting of young trees for the manufacture of See also:charcoal was a profitable See also:industry, and the See also:process of deforestation reached its maximum. Since 186o the forest area has only slightly diminished, and the condition of the timber has improved, but large trees are still scarce.centage of See also:cash tenants increased from 10.5 to 15.3; and that of See also:share tenants remained about stationary, being 14.1 in 188o and 14.6 in 1900. In this last See also:year 27.5 % of the farms derived their principal income from live stock, 20.3 % from vegetables, 17.2 % from See also:dairy produce, 7.8 % from fruits and 7.8 from See also:hay and See also:grain. In 1907, according to the Year See also:Book of the See also:United States See also:Department of Agriculture, the principal crops were: hay, 634,000 tons ($10,778,000) ; potatoes, 8,400,000 bushels ($6,216,000) ; See also:Indian See also:corn, 8,757,000 bushels ($5,517,000) ; See also:wheat, 1,998,000 bushels ($1,958,000) ; See also:rye, 1,372.000 bushels ($1,043,000) ; oats, 1,770,000 bushels ($991,000). The number and value of each of the various classes of live stock in the state on the 1st of See also:January 19o8 were as follows: horses, 102,000 ($11,526,000); mules, 5000 ($675,000); 'Mich cows, 190,000 ($8,170,000); other neat See also:cattle, 82,000 ($1,722,000); See also:sheep, 44,000 ($220,000); See also:swine, 155,000 ($1,555,000). In 1899, 5959 farms were classified as dairy farms, i.e. they derived at least 40 % of their income from dairy products; and the total value of dairy products was $8,436,869, the larger items being $6,318,568 for See also:milk sold and $818,624 for See also:butter sold.

Poultry raising also is an important agricultural industry: poultry in the state was valued at $1,300,853 on the 1st of See also:

June 1900; and for the year 1899 the value of all poultry raised was $2,265,816, and the value of eggs was $1,938,304. In the See also:production of cereals the state has not taken high See also:rank since the development of the wheat See also:fields of the western states; but in 1899 the acreage in cereals was 45.4 % of the acreage in all crops, and the value of the yield was 25.3% of that of all crops. Of the total acreage in cereals in 1907, 278,000 acres were in Indian corn; 1o8,000 in wheat; 78,000 in rye; and 60,000 in oats. The chief cereal-producing counties in 1899 were Burlington, Hunterdon, Monmouth and Salem. The most valuable See also:field See also:crop in 1907 was hay and See also:forage, consisting mostly of See also:clover and cultivated See also:grasses; in 1899 the value of this crop was 20.2 % of that of all crops. Since 183o market gardening in New Jersey has become increasingly important, especially in the vicinity of large cities, and has proved more profitable than the growing of cereals. In the total acreage devoted to the raising of vegetables in marketable quantities New Jersey in 1900 was surpassed by only two other states. The value of the marketable vegetables in 1899 was $4,630,658, and the value of the total See also:vegetable crop, $8,425,596, or 30.7 % of that of all crops. Among the vegetables grown the See also:potato is the most important; in 1907 there were 70,000 acres in potatoes, yielding 8,400,000 bushels, valued at $6,216,000. Between 1899 and 1907 the value of the potato crop more than doubled. In 1899 the state also produced 5,304,503 bushels of tomatoes; 2,418,641 bushels of sweet potatoes; 2,052,200 bunches of See also:asparagus; 17,890,980 heads of See also:cabbage; 21,495,940 See also:musk melons; 3,300,330 water melons; and 1,015,111 bushels of sweet corn. Fruit-growing has also attained considerable importance.

In 1899 the total value of the crop was $4,082,788; the value of the See also:

orchard fruit was $2,594,981; of small fruits, $1,406,049; and of grapes, $81,758. Peaches grow in all parts of the state, but most of the crop comes from Hunterdon, Sussex and See also:Somerset counties. Apples are grown there and also in the western part of Burlington county. In the See also:decade 1889–1899 the See also:apple crop increased from 603,890 to 4,640,896 bushels. In Monmouth, See also:Camden and parts of Burlington and See also:Gloucester counties great quantities of See also:pears are grown. Atlantic, Burlington, Camden and Salem counties are the great centres for strawberries; Atlantic, See also:Cumberland and Salem counties See also:lead in See also:grape-growing; and a large See also:huckleberry crop is yearly gathered in " the Pines." In 1899 New Jersey produced nearly a fourth of the cranberry crop of the United States, the chief centre of production being the bogs of Burlington and Ocean counties. Other fruits grown in considerable quantities are cherries, plums, blackberries and raspberries. Minerals and See also:Mining.—In 1907 the total value of the state's See also:mineral products was $32,800,299. See also:Clays of different degrees of value are found in nearly every section, but the principal clay mining areas are: the See also:Middlesex county area, where the best clays are found along the Raritan river and the coast; the Trenton area, in which clay is See also:mined chiefly at Dogtown, E. of Trenton; the Delaware river area, in the vicinity of See also:Palmyra; and the Woodmansie area, in Ocean county. As the clay pits contain only small amounts of any one See also:kind of clay, it has proved more profitable for manufacturers to buy their raw materials from a number of miners than for them to operate the mines themselves, and consequently clay mining and the manufacture of clay products are largely distinct See also:industries. In New Jersey the mining of clays is more important than in any other state, the amount mined and sold in 1902 being a third of the entire output of the United States, and the amount in 1907 (440,138 tons) being more than one-fifth of all clay mined and sold in the United States; and in 1907 in the value of clay products ($16,005,460; See also:brick and See also:tile, $9,019, 834, and pottery, $6,985,626) New Jersey was outranked only by See also:Ohio and Pennsylvania. In See also:Warren and Sussex counties are abundant materials for the manufacture of See also:Portland See also:cement, an industry that has attained importance since 1892; in the value of its product in 1907 ($4,738,516) New Jersey was surpassed only by Pennsylvania.

See also:

Granite is found in Morris and Sussex counties, but is not extensively quarried; there are extensive quarries of See also:sandstone in the Piedmont section; and See also:limestone and trap rock are important mineral resources. In 1907 the total value of See also:stone quarried in the state was $1,523,312, of which $995,436 was the value of trap rock, $274,452 of limestone, $177,667 of sandstone and $75,757 of granite. Some roofing See also:slate is produced in Sussex county; in 1907 the output was valued at $8000. The mining of natural fertilizers—white and See also:greensand marls—is a long established industry; the output in 1907 was 14,091 tons, valued at $8429. Of mineral ores the most important are See also:iron, See also:zinc and See also:copper. The manufacture of iron in New Jersey dates from 1674, when the See also:metal was reduced from its ores near See also:Shrewsbury, Monmouth county. Magnetic ores, found chiefly in Morris, Passaic and Warren counties, form the basis of the See also:present industry. See also:Bog ores were mined until about 1840; since that date they have had no market. The product of the iron mines has fluctuated greatly in quantity, being nearly 1,000,000 tons of ore in 1892, 257,235 tons in 1897, and 549,760 tons in 1907, when the output was valued at $1,815,586, and was about nine-tenths See also:magnetite and one-tenth See also:brown ore. The chief places of production are See also:Hibernia (Morris county) and Mt Pleasant (Hunterdon county) ; in 1907 four mines in the state produced 316,236 tons. In the production of zinc New Jersey once took a prominent part; in 1907 the only producer was The New Jersey Zinc See also:Company's mine at See also:Franklin See also:Furnace, Sussex county, with an output of 13,573 short tons, valued at $1,601,614. The chief deposits consist of red See also:oxide, silicate and See also:franklinite, and the average zinc content is 23 %.

The copper deposits of the state were worked to a small extent in colonial days. One of the See also:

brass See also:cannon used at See also:Yorktown was made of copper taken from the Watchung Mountains'during the See also:War for See also:Independence. These mountains are still the chief source of copper, but the ores, chiefly See also:cuprite, See also:malachite and See also:chrysocolla, are also found in various parts of the Piedmont region. In the years following 1900 there was renewed See also:interest in copper mining. There are many valuable mineral springs in the state: for 1907 eleven springs (three in See also:Bergen and two each in Morris, Camden and Somerset counties) reported to the U.S. Geological Survey the See also:sale of 982,445 gallons (mostly table water), valued at $103,082. Other minerals, which are not found in commercial quantities, are lead in the form of See also:galena, in Sussex county; See also:graphite, in the crystalline schistose rocks of the Highlands; See also:molybdenum, in the form of a sulphide, in Sussex county; and See also:barytes in See also:Mercer and Sussex counties. In Bergen, Warren, Sussex and Morris counties are numerous bogs containing See also:peat of a good quality. Manufactures.—After 1850 New Jersey made rapid progress in manufacturing, which soon became its leading industry. In 1850 7 % of the See also:population were employed as wage-earners in manu-Lcturing establishments; in 1900, 12.8 %. The value of the See also:pro-ducts in 185o was $39,851,256; in 1890, $354,573,571; in 1900, $611,748,933. Such figures of the See also:census of 1900 as are comparable with those of the See also:special census of 1905, when only the establishments under the factory See also:system were enumerated, show that between 1900 and 1905 the number of factories increased 9.3 %; the See also:capital, 49.8 %; and the value of the products,' 40 % (from $353,005,684 to $774,369,025).

This rapid development is due to the excellent transportation facilities, and to the proximity of large markets and of great natural resources, such as the clays of New Jersey and the coal and iron of Pennsylvania. The chief manufacturing centres in 1 05, as judged by the value of their products, were Newark ($150,055,277), Jersey City ($75,740,934), See also:

Bayonne ($60,633,761), Paterson ($54,673,083), See also:Perth Amboy ($34,800,402), Camden ($33,587,273), and Trenton ($32,719,945). In 1905, 67.1 % of the factories were in municipalities having a population of at least 8000 in 1900, and their product was 74.1% (in value) of the total. There are indications, however, that industries are slowly shifting to the smaller towns. The textile industries taken together are the most important of the manufacturing industries, having a greater output (in 1900, $81,910,850; in 1905, $96,060,407), employing more labourers and capital, and paying more See also:wages than any other group. Among the various textiles See also:silk takes the first place, the value of the factory product in 1900 being $39,966,662, and in 1905, $42,862,907. In 1900 the value of the silk output was 48.8 % of the total value of the textiles, and silk manufacturing was more important than any other industry (textile or not) ; in 1905, however, owing to the great progress in other industries, silk had dropped to fourth place, but still contributed 44.6 % of the value of the textiles. In 1900 New Jersey furnished 37.3 %, and. in 1905, 32.2 % , of the silk products of the United States, and was surpassed by no other state. The silk Sndustry is centred at Paterson, the chief silk manufacturing city of the United States. West See also:Hoboken and Jersey City are also important producers. A second textile industry in which New Jersey in 1900 and in 1905 took first rank was the manufacture of See also:felt hats; the total value of the product in 1905 was ',•.,54o,433 a gain of 32.3 % since 1900, and constituting 26 % of the value of the product of the entire United States. Most of the product comes from the cities of Newark and Orange.

From 1900 to 1905 the value of the worsted goods increased from $6,823,72I to $11,925,126, or 74.8 %, I The following See also:

statistics of the products for 1900 and for 1905 are for factory products, those for 1900 differing, therefore, from the statistics which appear in the reports of the census of 1900.the greatest gain made by any of the textiles. In this industry New Jersey was surpassed only by See also:Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. During this five-year See also:period there was an increase of 31.2 % (from $6,540,289 to $8,518,527) in the value of the See also:cotton goods manufactured in New Jersey; of 12.6 % (from $2,168,570 to $2,441,516) in that of See also:linen goods; of 45.3 % (from $1,748,148 to $2,539,178) in that of See also:hosiery and knit goods, and of .14.8 % (from $1,522,827 to $1,748,831) in that of carpets and rugs. In See also:dyeing and See also:finishing textiles New Jersey was first among the states of the Union in 1900 (value, $10,488,963, being 23.3% of the total for the See also:country) and in 1905 (value, $II,979,947, being 23.6 % of the total for the country) ; Paterson is the centre of this industry in New Jersey. In the manufacture of clay products, including brick, tiling, terra See also:cotta and pottery, the state takes high rank: the total value of pottery, terra cotta'and fire-clay products increased from $8,940,723 in 1900 t0 $I1,717,103 in 1905; in 1905 the most valuable pottery product was sanitary See also:ware, valued at $3,006,406; and in that year New Jersey furnished 18.2 % of the total pottery product of the United States, and was surpassed in this industry only by Ohio. The city of Trenton is one of the two great centres of the American pottery industry, and in 1905 it manufactured more than one-half of the state's output of pottery, terra cotta and fire-clay products. The pottery products include See also:china, c.c. ware, white granite ware, sanitary ware, belleek and See also:porcelain. Much of the raw material for this industry, such as See also:ball, See also:flint, and spar clays and See also:kaolin, is imported from other states. In 1905 the value of brick and tile manufactured in the state was $1,830,080. See also:Glass is also an important product of New Jersey ; the output being valued at $5,093,822 in 1900 and at $6,450,195 in 1905. Since 188o, however, the state had fallen from second to fourth place (in 1905) in this industry. The leading single industry in the state in 1905, as determined by the value of its products, was the smelting and refining of copper.

In 1900 the output was valued at $38,365,131; in 1905, at $62,795,713, an increase of 63.7 %; and in 1905 21.6 % of the product of the United States came from New Jersey. The raw materials for this industry, however, are imported into New Jersey from other states. In the smelting and refining of See also:

platinum, See also:nickel. See also:gold and See also:silver (not from the ore) there was a striking development between 1900 and 1905, the value of the product increasing from $469,224 to $7,034,139. The value in 1905 of gold and silver reduced and refined (not from the ore) was $5,281,805. The values of the other leading manufactures in 1905 were as follows: products of foundry and See also:machine shops, $49,425,385; iron and steel2 (including products of blast furnaces and See also:rolling See also:mills), $23,667,483; See also:wire (exclusive of copper wire), $11,103,959; See also:petroleum refining, $46,608,984; tanned, curried and finished See also:leather, $21,495,329 (5th in the United States in 1900 and 1905); See also:malt liquors, $17,446,447; slaughter-See also:house products and packed meats, $17,238,076; See also:electrical machinery, supplies and apparatus, $13,8o3,476 (5th in the United States in 1900 and in 1905) ; chemicals, $13,023,629; See also:rubber belting and See also:hose, $9,915,742; See also:jewelry, $9,303,646 (4th in the United States in 1900 and in 1905) ; See also:tobacco, cigars and cigarettes, $8,331,611. Other manufactures valued in 1905 at more than $5,000,000 were: boots and shoes, cars and general railway See also:shop See also:work, See also:illuminating and See also:heating See also:gas, See also:lumber and planing mill products, phonographs, fertilizers, See also:flour and grist mill products, iron and See also:steel See also:ships, refined See also:lard and See also:paper and See also:wood pulp. See also:Fisheries.—The fisheries of the state are of great commercial value. In 1904 the fisheries and the wholesale fish See also:trade gave employment to 9094 persons. Until 1901 New Jersey's fisheries were more important than those of any other state in the Middle or South Atlantic See also:groups; but after that date, owing to a decrease in the catch of bluefish, shad, clams and oysters, the annual catch of New York and Virginia became more valuable. The great length of river and,sea front, and the easy communication from all parts of the state with the leading See also:urban markets, have brought about the development of this industry. The total catch in 1904 was 90,108,068 ib, valued at $3,385,415, a decline of 28 % in value since 1901. The chief varieties of the product in 1904, with their value, were as follows: oysters, $1,691,953; clams, $430,766; shad, $238,517; squeteague (weak-fish), 253,200; bluefish, $120,085; menhaden, $109,090; sea bass, $97,903; See also:cod, $53,789.

Fishing, as a commercial pursuit, is carried on in seventeen counties, and attains its greatest importance in Cumberland county, where the catch in 1904 was valued at $1,090,157, and the See also:

oyster catch alone at $1,046,147. In the other counties along the Delaware shad is the chief product, and these counties furnish nearly nine-tenths of the catch. A small amount of shad is taken also in the Hudson river. The value of the shad fisheries has greatly declined since 1901. Along the coast squeteague is the most abundant edible variety taken. Bluefish are very plentiful from 4 to 10 M. off Seabright. The See also:shell fisheries (oysters particularly) are centred in Delaware Bay and at Maurice River See also:Cove, in Cumberland county, but are important also in Cape May, Atlantic, Ocean and Monmouth R This is one of the See also:oldest of the important industries in New Jersey: at Old Boonton, about 1770, was established a rolling and slitting mill, probably the first in the country. counties on the Atlantic seaboard. This industry declined for a See also:time, partly on account of the pollution of the streams by sewage and the refuse of manufacturing establishments, but See also:laws have been enacted for its See also:protection and development. Clams are gathered from Perth Amboy to the upper Delaware Bay; the most important fisheries being at Keyport, Port Monmouth and Belford. In 1909 the State See also:Bureau of Shell Fisheries estimated the annual value of shell fisheries in the state at nearly $6,000,000, of which $500,000 was the value of clams. Monmouth, Ocean and Cape May counties furnish large quantities of menhaden, which are utilized for oil and fertilizer.

This industry in 1904 yielded fertilizer valued at $154,360 and oil valued at $33,110. Transportation.—In 1905, with a total railway mileage of 2274.40, New Jersey possessed an average of 30.22 M. of railway for each too sq. m. of territory, an average higher than that of any other American state; in 1909, according to the State Railroad Commissioners, the mileage was 2354.63 (including additional tracks, sidings, &c., 5471.38 m.). Owing to its See also:

geographical position the state is crossed by all roads reaching New York City from the S. and W., and all those reaching See also:Philadelphia from the N. and E. The eastern terminals of the southern and western lines running from New York City are situated on the western See also:shore of the Hudson river, in Weehawken, Hoboken or Jersey City; whence passengers and See also:freight are carried by See also:ferry to New York. Jersey City and Hoboken are also connected with New York by tunnels under the Hudson river. Among these lines are the See also:Erie system, extending W. from Jersey City via See also:Buffalo; the New York, Susquehanna tk Western (subsidiary to the Erie), from Jersey City to Wilkes-See also:Barre, Pennsylvania; the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, from Hoboken to Buffalo; the Lehigh Valley, from Jersey City to Buffalo; the Pennsylvania, from Jersey City to the S. and W.1; the New York, See also:Ontario & Western (controlled by the New York, New Haven & See also:Hartford), from Weehawken to See also:Oswego; the West Shore (leased by the New York Central), from Weehawken to Buffalo; and the Central railway of New Jersey (controlled by the Philadelphia & See also:Reading), with numerous short lines from Jersey City to the S. and W. These roads also operate numerous branch lines and control other short lines built independently. Among the latter class are the Atlantic City railway (controlled by the Philadelphia & Reading) from Philadelphia to various coast resorts in southern New Jersey; and the West Jersey & Seashore (controlled by the Pennsylvania), from Philadelphia to Atlantic City and Cape May. The See also:railways operating independently of the great " See also:trunk " systems are few and unimportant. The excellence of the waggon roads of the state is largely due to the plentiful supply of trap rock in New Jersey. Of New Jersey's 487 M. of boundary, 319 M. are touched by waters navigable for boats of varying draft. There is tidal water on the E. and S., and also on the W. as far N. as Trenton.

The lower Hudson is navigable for the largest ocean-going steamers. From Bergen Point to Perth Amboy, W. of Staten Island, lie the narrow channels of the Kill van Kull and See also:

Arthur Kill, with a minimum See also:depth of 9 or to ft. at low water. Raritan Bay, to the S., is navigable only for small vessels. There are no good harbours on the Atlantic coast. The lower Delaware is navigable for ocean steamships as far N. as Camden (opposite Philadelphia), and for small vessels as far as Trenton, which is the See also:head of See also:navigation. Tl.e only deep water terminals of the state are Jersey City and Hoboken. Among the rivers the Raritan is navigable to New See also:Brunswick, the Hackensack for small boats for 20 M. above its mouth, the See also:Rahway as far as Rahway, the Great Egg Harbor river as far as May's Landing, the Mullica for 20 M. above its mouth, and the See also:Elizabeth river as far as Elizabeth. In 1907 an inland waterway from Cape May to Bay Head was planned: the length of this channel, through and between coastal sounds from the southernmost part of the state to the northern end of Barnegat Bay in the N.E. part of Ocean county, was to be about 116.6 m., and the channel was to be 6 ft. deep and too ft. wide. The Delaware and Raritan canal2 was long a very 1 The Pennsylvania railway has constructed tunnels under the Hudson river, and has erected a large terminal station on Manhattan Island. 2In See also:William Winterbotham's An See also:Historical, Geographical, Commercial and Philosophical View of the American United States, &c. (See also:London, 1795) there was a discussion of the feasibility of a See also:canal between the Delaware and the Raritan. In 1804 a company was chartered to build such a canal; in 1816 a route Was surveyed; in 1823 a commission was appointed which recommended a route and suggested that the state take part in See also:building the canal; in December 1826 a canal company was incorporated with a See also:monopoly of canal and railway privileges within to m. of any part of the canal authorized, but Pennsylvania refused permission to use the waters of the Delaware, and the See also:charter lapsed; in 183o the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company was incorporated by an See also:act which forbade the construction of any other canal within 5 m. of the proposed route of the Delaware and Raritan, and which reserved to the state the right to buy the waterway 3o years (changed in 1831 to go years) after its completion.

See also:

Lieutenant (afterwards See also:Commodore) See also:Robert F. See also:Stockton (1795–1866), See also:president of the Company, contributed greatly to its See also:financial success. In 1831 it was combined with the Camden & Amboy railway.important artificial waterway. Its main channel (opened for See also:traffic in 1838) extends from See also:Bordentown, Burlington county, on the Delaware to New Brunswick, on the Raritan, 44 M. by the canal route, and thus carries the waters of the Delaware river entirely across the state, discharging them into the Raritan at New Bruns-See also:wick. It is 40 ft. wide at the bottom, 8o ft. at the top and 9 ft. deep; it has a navigable feeder (30 ft. wide at the bottom and 6o ft. wide at the top, with a depth of 9 ft.), which is 22 M. long, extending from the Delaware at See also:Bull's Head to Trenton. The canal passes through Trenton (the highest point—56.3 ft. above mean See also:tide), See also:Kingston, Griggston, See also:Weston and See also:Bound Brook, and has one See also:lock (or more) at each of these places. It is used chiefly for the transportation of Pennsylvania coal to New York, and is controlled by the Pennsylvania railway. The total cost up to 1906 was $5,113,749. The Morris Canal,' opened in 1836, is 5o ft. wide at the surface, o ft. wide at the bottom and 5 ft. deep, and (excluding 4.1 M. of feeders) 102.38 M. long, beginning at Jersey City and passing through Newark, See also:Bloomfield, Paterson, Little Falls, Boonton, Rockaway, Dover, Port Oram, Lake Hopatcong, Hackettstown and Washington to See also:Phillipsburg on the Delaware; it is practically in two sections, one east and the other west of Lake Hopatcong (Sussex and Morris counties; about 928 ft. above sea-level; 9 M. long from N.E. to S.W.; maximum width, t m.), which is a See also:reservoir and feeder for the canal's eastern and western branches, and which was enlarged considerably when the canal was built. There is another feeder, the Pompton, 3.6 m. long, in Passaic county. The canal crosses the Passaic and Pompton rivers on aqueducts. The Canal (the Morris Canal Banking Company) was leased in April 1871 to the Lehigh Valley Railroad Company for 999 years.

It is no longer of commercial importance as a waterway. At Phillipsburg it connects with an important coal carrying canal (lying almost entirely in Pennsylvania), the property of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Co. (leased to the Central Railroad of New Jersey), which follows the Lehigh river to Coalport (See also:

Carbon county, Pennsylvania), penetrating the coal regions of Pennsylvania. Population.—The population of the state in 188o was 1,131,116; in 189o, 1,444,933; in 1900, 1,883,669 (431,884 See also:foreign-See also:born, and 69,844 negroes); in 1905 (state census) 2,144,134; in 1910, 2,537,167. Of the native-born white population in 'goo, 556,294 were of foreign parentage, and 825,973 were of native parentage. Among the various elements comprising the foreign-born population were 119,598 Germans; 94,844 Irish; 45,428 See also:English; 41,865 Italians; 19,745 Russians; 14,913 Hungarians; 14,728 Austrians; 14,357 Poles; 14,211 Scotch; and 10,261 Dutch. In 1800 barely 2% of the population was urban; in 1900 8o % of the inhabitants either lived in cities or were in daily communication with Philadelphia or New York. The rural population is practically stationary. The chief cities in 1910 were Newark (pop. 347,469), Jersey City (267,779), Paterson(125,600), Trenton (96,815), Camden (94,538) and Hoboken (70,324). Owing to its milder climate and its larger number of cities New Jersey has a See also:negro population somewhat larger than that of the states of the same latitude farther west. The See also:rate of increase of this See also:element, which is greatest in the cities, is about the same as that for the white inhabitants.

Since 1881 colonies of See also:

Hebrews have been established in the southern part of the state, among them being See also:Alliance (1881), Rosenhayn (1882), See also:Carmel (1883), and, most noted of all, Woodbine, which owes its origin to the liberality of See also:Baron de See also:Hirsch, and contains the Baron de Hirsch Agricultural and See also:Industrial School. As regards See also:church See also:affiliation, in 1906 See also:Roman Catholics were the most numerous, with 441,432 members out of a total of 857,548 communicants of all denominations; there were 122,511 Methodists, 79,912 Presbyterians, 65,248 See also:Baptists, 53,921 See also:Protestant Episcopalians, 32,290 members of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in See also:America, and 24,147 See also:Lutherans. The Morris Canal & Banking Company was chartered in 1824 to build the Morris Canal, which never proved a financial success, partly because of the competition of the Delaware Raritan. which soon commanded the coal trade, and partly because of See also:physical and See also:mechanical defects. It was exempted from all See also:taxation by the state, which reserved the right to buy it, at a See also:fair See also:price, in 1923 or, without making any See also:payment, to succeed to the actual ownership in 1973 upon the expiration of the charter. The See also:idea of utilizing the waters of Lake Hopatcong was that of See also:George P. See also:MacCulloch of Morristown. A See also:peculiar feature of the canal was a system of inclined planes or railways on which there were cradles, carrying the canal See also:boat up (or down) the incline; these were devised by See also:Professor See also:James See also:Renwick (1818–1895) of See also:Columbia See also:College; 12 of them in the eastern See also:division raised boats altogether about 720 ft., and 11 of them in the western division lowered the boats about 690 ft.—the See also:remainder of the grade was overcome by locks. See also:Administration.—The state is governed under the constitution of 1844, with subsequent amendments of 1875 and of 1897. The only other constitution under which the state has been governed was that of 1776 (see See also:History below). The right of See also:suffrage is conferred upon all See also:males, twenty-one years of age and over, who have resided in the state for one year and in the county for five months preceding the See also:election.' Paupers, idiots, insane persons and persons who are convicted of crimes which exclude them from being witnesses and who have not been pardoned and restored to See also:civil rights are disfranchised. The executive power is vested in a See also:governor, who is elected for a See also:term of three years and may not serve two successive terms, though he may be re-elected after he has been out of See also:office for a full term. He must be at least See also:thirty years of age, and must have been a See also:citizen of the United States for a least twenty years, and a See also:resident of the state seven years next preceding his election.

He may not be elected by the legislature, during the term for which he is elected as governor, to any office under the state or the United States governments. He receives a See also:

salary of $1o,000 a year. If the governor See also:die, resign or be removed from office, or if his office be otherwise vacant, he is succeeded by the president of the See also:Senate, who serves until another governor is elected and qualified. The governor's See also:powers under the constitution of 1776 were greatly limited by the constitution of 1844. His appointive power is unusually large. With the See also:advice and consent of the state Senate he selects the secretary of state, See also:attorney-general, See also:superintendent of public instruction, See also:chancellor, chief See also:justice, See also:judges of the supreme, See also:circuit, inferior and See also:district courts, and the so-called " See also:lay " judges of the See also:court of errors and appeals, in addition to the See also:minor administrative See also:officers who are usually appointive in all American states. The governor may make no appointments in the last See also:week of his term. The state treasurer, See also:comptroller and the commissioners of deeds are appointed by the two houses of the legislature in See also:joint session. The governor is ex officio a member of the court of pardons, and his affirmative See also:vote is necessary in all cases of See also:pardon or See also:commutation of See also:sentence (see below). The legislative department consists of a Senate and a General See also:Assembly. In the Senate each of the 21 counties has one representative, chosen for a term of three years, and about one-third of the membership is chosen each year. The members of the General Assembly are elected annually, are limited to sixty (the actual number in 1909), and are apportioned among the counties according to population, with the important proviso, however, that every county shall have at least one member.

The arrangement of senatorial See also:

representation is very unequal; and the densely populated counties are under-represented. A senator must at the time of his election be at least thirty years old, and must have been a citizen and inhabitant of the state for four years and of his county for one year immediately preceding his election; and an assemblyman must at the time of his election he at least twenty-one years old, and must have been a citizen and inhabitant of the state for two years, and of his county for one year, immediately preceding his election. The annual salary of each senator and of each member of the General Assembly is $500. See also:Money bills originate in the lower house, but the Senate may propose amendments. The legislature may not create any See also:debt or liability " which shall, single or in the aggregate with any previous debts or liabilities, at any time exceed $See also:Ioo,000," except for purposes of war, to repel invasion or to suppress insurrection, without specifying distinctly the purpose or See also:object, providing for the payment of interest, and limiting the liability to thirty-five years; and the measure as thus passed must be ratified by popular vote. The constitution as amended in 1875 forbids the legislature to pass any private or special laws regulating the affairs of towns or counties, or to vote state grants to any municipal or industrial corporations or See also:societies, and prescribes that in imposing taxes the See also:assessment of taxable property shall be according to general laws and by uniform rules; and See also:anti-See also:race-track agitation in 1891–1897 led to a further See also:amendment prohibiting the legalizing of See also:lotteries, of See also:pool-selling ' The constitution of 1844 limited the suffrage to white males, and although this See also:limitation was annulled by the fifteenth amendment to the Federal Constitution, it was not until 1875 that the state by an amendment (adopted on the 7th of See also:September) struck the word " white " from its suffrage clause. At the same time another amendment was adopted providing that sailors and soldiers in the service of the United States in time of war might vote although absent from their election districts.or of other forms of gambling. The governor may (since 1875) See also:veto any See also:item in any See also:appropriation See also:bill, but any bill (or item) may be passed over his veto by See also:bare majorities (of all members elected) in both houses. Bills not returned to the legislature in five days become See also:law, unless the legislature adjourns in the meantime. Amendments to the constitution must first be passed by the legislature at two consecutive sessions (receiving a See also:majority vote of all members elected to each house), and then be ratified by the voters at a special election, and no amendment or amendments may be submitted by the legislature to the See also:people oftener than once in five years. The judicial system is complex and is an interesting development from the English system of the 18th See also:century. At its head is a court of errors and appeals composed of the chancellor, the justices of the supreme court and six additional " lay " judges.

The supreme court consists of a chief justice and eight See also:

associate justices, but it may be held by the chief justice alone or by any one of the associate justices. The state is divided into nine judicial districts, and each supreme court justice holds circuit courts within each county of a judicial district, besides being associated with the " president " See also:judge of the court of common pleas of each county in holding the court of common pleas, the court of See also:quarter sessions, the court of oyer and terminer and the orphans' court. One of five additional judges may hold a circuit court in the See also:absence of a justice of the supreme court, or the " president " judge of a court of common pleas may do so if the supreme court justice See also:requests it. In each township there are from two to five justices of the See also:peace, any one of whom may preside over the " small cause court," which has See also:jurisdiction of cases in which the See also:matter in dispute does not exceed $200 and is not an See also:action of See also:replevin, one in which the See also:charge is See also:slander, trespass or See also:assault, See also:battery or imprisonment, or in which the See also:title to real See also:estate is in question. The court of common pleas, which may be held either by the " president " judge or by a justice of the supreme court, may hear appeals from the " small cause court," and has original jurisdiction in all civil matters except those in which the title to real estate is in question. The court of quarter sessions, which may likewise be held by either the judge of the court of common pleas or by a justice of the supreme court, has jurisdiction over all criminal cases except those of See also:treason or See also:murder. The court of oyer and terminer is a higher criminal court, and has See also:cognizance of all crimes and offences whatever. Except in counties having a population of 300,000 or more, a justice of the supreme court must preside over it, and the judge of the court of common pleas may or may not sit with him; in a county having a population of 300,000 or more the judge of the court of common pleas may sit alone. Writs of See also:error in cases punishable with See also:death are returnable only to the court of errors and appeals. No appeals are permitted in criminal cases. The orphans' court may be held either by the judge of the court of common pleas or by a justice of the supreme court; and it has jurisdiction over controversies respecting the existence of See also:wills, the fairness of inventories, the right of administration and guardianship, the See also:allowance of accounts to executors, administrators, guardians or trustees, and over suits for the recovery of legacies and distributive shares, but it may refer any matter coming before it to a See also:master in See also:chancery. The See also:prerogative court, which is presided over by the chancellor as See also:ordinary and See also:surrogate-general, or by a See also:vice-ordinary and vice-surrogate-general, may hear appeals from the orphans' court, and has the authority to See also:grant See also:probate of wills and letters of administration and guardianship, and to hear and determine disputes arising therein.

The court of chancery is administered by a chancellor, seven vice-chancellors and numerous masters in chancery. Besides the ordinary chancery jurisdiction it hears all applications for See also:

divorce or nullity of See also:marriage. Appeals from the court of chancery as well as writs of error from the supreme court are heard by the court of errors and appeals. New Jersey has a court of pardons composed of the governor, chancellor and the six " lay " judges of the court of errors and appeals, and the concurrence of a majority of its members, of whom the governor shall be one, is necessary to grant a pardon, commute a sentence or remit a See also:fine. This court has, also, the authority to grant to a convict a See also:licence to be at large upon such See also:security, terms, conditions and limitations as it may require. The judges of the several New Jersey courts are appointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate for a term of years, usually five to seven. For the purposes of local See also:government the state is divided into counties, cities, townships, towns and boroughs. The government of the towns is administered through a See also:council, clerk, See also:collector, See also:assessor, treasurer, &c., chosen by popular vote; that of the townships is vested in the annual town meeting, at which administrative officers are elected. Any township with more than s000 inhabitants may be incorporated as a town, with its The division of townships into school districts and the election government vested in a See also:mayor and council. Any township or of three trustees were provided for in 1829. In 1846 each town- part thereof with less than 4 sq. m. of territory, and less than 5o00 inhabitants, may be incorporated as a See also:borough, with its government vested in a mayor and council. In 1903 a law (revised in 1908) was passed providing for the conduct at public cost of See also:primary elections for the nomination of nearly all elective officers, and for the nomination of delegates to party nominating conventions; nominations for primary elections are made by petitions signed by at least ten voters (except in very small election districts) who make See also:affidavit as to their party affiliations; the nominee thus indorsed must See also:file a See also:letter of See also:acceptance.

Under this act a "See also:

political party" is one which polled at least one-twentieth of the total number of votes See also:cast in the next preceding election in the area for which the nomination is made; and in party conventions there must be one delegate from each election district, and one delegate for each 200 votes cast by the party in the next preceding gubernatorial election. An act approved on the loth of April 1908 authorized a Civil Service Commission of four members appointed by the governor, who choose a chief examiner and a secretary of the commission. Civil service rules adopted by this commission went into effect in the same year for certain state employes. In 1910 that part of the law permitting municipalities to adopt these rules through their governing bodies was declared unconstitutional; but municipalities may adopt them by popular vote. A state See also:Board of Railroad Commissioners (three appointed by the governor), created in 1907, became in 1910 a Board of Public Utility Commissioners with jurisdiction over all public utilities (including telephones and telegraphs); its approval is necessary for the issue of stock or bonds, but it has no power to See also:fix rates. The state acts concurrently with New York in preserving the natural beauties of the Palisades of the Hudson river; and in 1909 the Palisades Interstate Park, with a front of 13 M. on the Hudson, from Fort See also:Lee to Piermont, was dedicated. The See also:homestead exempt from sale under seizure is limited to the house and See also:lot, not exceeding $loon in value, of a debtor having a See also:family. To entitle the property to exemption, it must be registered as a homestead in the office of the county clerk, and it may be sold, then, only with the consent of the See also:husband and wife, and the proceeds of the sale, to the amount of $See also:i000, must be applied to the See also:purchase of another homestead. The exemption does not extend to a sale for unpaid taxes, for labour done on the homestead, materials furnished to it, or for a debt contracted in the purchase thereof, or See also:prior to the recording of the See also:notice. The exemption inures to the benefit of the widow and family of the householder until the youngest See also:child becomes twenty-one years of age. Capital See also:punishment is by See also:electrocution. A law of 1902 provides the death See also:penalty for any murderous assault on the president of the United States, the chief executive of any state, or the See also:heir to any foreign See also:throne.

The grounds for an See also:

absolute divorce are only two: See also:adultery and " wilful, continued and obstinate " See also:desertion for two years; but a See also:decree of limited or permanent separation may be obtained in case of extreme See also:cruelty. Unless the cause of action is adultery or at least one of the parties was a resident of the state at the time the cause of action arose and has continued to reside there, no suit for a divorce can be begun until one of the parties shall have resided in the state for the two years next preceding. Furthermore, the cause of action must have been recognized in the jurisdiction in which the petitioner resided at the time it arose. No child less than fourteen years old is permitted to work in any factory, workshop or mill; and the penalty for each offence is $50. The employment of See also:children under sixteen years of age in any See also:mercantile See also:establishment for more than to See also:hours a See also:day, or 55 hours a week, or between 6 o'clock in the evening and 6 o'clock in the morning is prohibited, except one evening each week when they may be permitted to work until 9 o'clock, and except in the evenings from the 15th to the 25th of December when they may be permitted to work until 10 o'clock. There are strict provisions for the protection and for the sanitary See also:housing of factory employees, and prohibiting sweat-shops. A state law (1899) requires the payment of wages in lawful money at least every two weeks to its employees on the part of every See also:firm, association or See also:partnership doing business in the state. See also:Education—During the colonial period there were See also:schools maintained by churches, a few town schools of the New England type, and, in the latter part of the era, a number of private schools. But the schools of colonial New jersey, especially the private schools, were usually taught by incompetent masters, and many children were permitted to grow up without any schooling whatever. Public interest in education, however, began to awaken soon after the See also:close of the War of Independence. Under the encouragement of an act of the legislature passed in 1794 several See also:academies were established. A public school fund was established in 1817.

Three years later townships were authorized to See also:

levy taxes for maintaining schools for poor children.See also:ship was required to raise as much money for school purposes as the state contributed. In 1855 a normal school for training teachers was established at Trenton. And in 1867 a school law was passed which established the main features of the present school system, although it was four years later before a state school tax was imposed and schools were made free to all children in the state. The public school system is administered under the direction of a superintendent of public instruction and a state board of education. The former decides all controversies arising under the school law, and exercises a general supervision over the public schools; the latter has the control of a number of special state educational institutions, appoints the county superintendents and supervises the See also:execution of the school laws of the state. In general each city, town and township in the state constitutes a separate school district, although two or more of these may unite to form a single district. Each district is required to furnish free textbooks. All children between the ages of 7 and 15 are required to attend school for the full school year, and those who at 15 years of age have not completed the See also:grammar school course must continue to attend until they either See also:complete it or arrive at the age of 17. Furthermore, children past 15 years of age who have completed the grammar school course but are not regularly and lawfully employed at some useful occupation must attend a high school or a See also:manual training school until 17 years of age. Funds for the support of the public schools are derived from various See also:sources: (1) the interest on the " surplus See also:revenue " ($760,670), deposited with New Jersey by the Federal government in 1836; (2) the income from the state school fund, consisting largely of receipts from the sale and rental of riparian lands 1; (3) a state school tax; (4) a See also:direct appropriation by the legislature to supplement the school tax, so that the two combined will form a sum equal to a tax of two and three-fourths mills on each See also:dollar of taxable property; and (5) local taxes. At the close of the. fiscal year 1908 the school fund of the state was $4,850,602.41; the income for the year was $224,233.56 and the disbursements were $373,095.76. The income from the state school fund is divided among the counties on the basis of the total number of days of attendance of the public school pupils; the legislative appropriation, however, is apportioned among the counties according to their assessed property values.

Each county also received 90% of the state school tax it has paid, the remainder forming a reserve fund to be distributed among the counties at the discretion of the state board. The state will duplicate any yearly sum between $250 and $5000 which a school district may raise to maintain a school or courses of manual training. In like manner, any school that raises $20 for a library will receive the same amount from the state, which will also contribute $to each year thereafter for See also:

maintenance, if the school raises a similar sum. The total number of teachers in the public schools in 1908 was 10,279; the total school enrollment was 402,866, with an average daily attendance of 289,167; and the average length of the school term was nine months and two days. For the benefit of See also:veteran and invalid public school teachers there is a " retirement fund," which owes its origin to voluntary contributions by teachers in active service. The state has taken See also:official recognition of this fund and administers it on behalf of the contributors through a board of trustees appointed by the governor. In addition to the See also:regular public schools, the state maintains a normal and a See also:model school at Trenton, a normal school at See also:Montclair (opened 1908), the Farnum Preparatory School at See also:Beverly, a Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth at Bordentown, and an agricultural college and experiment station, maintained in connexion with Rutgers College, at New Brunswick. There are industrial schools in Newark, Hoboken and Trenton, for which the state made an appropriation of $20,000 in 1908. Among the prominent institutions not receiving state aid are See also:Princeton University, at Princeton; Rutgers College (excluding its agricultural school), at New Brunswick; and the See also:Stevens See also:Institute of Technology, at Hoboken. Among the denominational institutions are the Theological See also:Seminary (Presbyterian) at Princeton; the See also:Drew Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal) at See also:Madison; See also:Seton See also:Hall College (Roman See also:Catholic), at South Orange; St See also:Peter's College (Roman Catholic) at Jersey City; St See also:Benedict's College (Roman Catholic) at Newark; the See also:German Theological School of Newark i The state's title to its riparian lands was established, after a long controversy, in 1870 in the case of Stevens v. the Paterson £s' Newark R.R. Co. (5 Vroom's Reports 532).

Since that date, with the exception of the period of Governor Abbett's second administration (1890-1893), the proceeds from the sale and rental of these lands have been regularly applied to the school fund, receipts for the year were $4,602,100, and the total disbursements, $5,366,813. History.—Bones and implements have been found in the See also:

Quaternary gravels at Trenton, which have been held by some authorities to prove the presence of See also:Palaeolithic See also:man; but the earliest inhabitants of New Jersey of whom there is any certain See also:record were the Lenni-Lennape or Delaware See also:Indians, a branch of the Algonquian family. They were most numerous in the southern and central portions of the state, preferring the river valleys; but their total number, perhaps, never exceeded a thousand. Between them and the See also:European settlers there were seldom any manifestations of acute hostility, though each race feared and distrusted the other. Many Indians were enslaved, and intermarriage between them and negro slaves became common. During the 18th century the Indian title to the soil was rapidly extinguished, and at the same time the vices and diseases of the stronger race were gradually reducing their numbers. In 1758 an Indian See also:reservation, said to have been the first established within the present limits of the United States, was established at Edgepelick, or Brotherton (now called Indian Mills) in Burlington county. The surviving See also:aborigines remained there until 18oz, when they joined the Mohegans in New York and migrated to See also:Wisconsin and later to Indian Territory, now part of the state of See also:Oklahoma. For the extinction of all Indian titles the legislature of New Jersey in 1832 appropriated $2000, and since that date almost every vestige of Indian occupation has disappeared. _ The first authenticated visit of a European to what is now New Jersey was made under See also:French authority by Giovanni da Verrazano, a Florentine navigator, who in the See also:spring of 1524 sailed within Sandy See also:Hook and dropped See also:anchor in the waters of upper New York Bay. In the following year Estevan See also:Gomez, a Portuguese sailor in the service of the See also:emperor See also:Charles V., in his reputed voyage southward from Labrador, is said to have made See also:note of the Hudson and Delaware rivers. It is very probable, also, that French traders soon afterward penetrated the region along the lower Hudson.

Voyages to this region for exploration, trade and See also:

settlement, however, may be said to have really begun with the year 1609, when See also:Henry Hudson explored the region between Sandy Hook and Raritan Bay and sailed up the river which now bears his name. After this voyage came Dutch traders, who established themselves on Manhattan Island and soon spread across the Hudson river into what are now Hudson and Bergen counties. In 1614 Cornelis See also:Jacobsen Mey explored the lower Delaware, and two years later Cornelis Hendricksen more thoroughly explored this stream. In 1623 the first party of permanent homeseekers arrived at New See also:Amsterdam, and a portion of these formed a settlement on the eastern bank of the Delaware and built Fort See also:Nassau near the site of the present Gloucester City. In 1631 See also:Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blommaert secured a patent from Peter Minuit, the director of New Nether-land, authorizing them to plant a settlement near Cape May, but the effort was soon abandoned. A trading hut built at See also:Paulus Hook in 1633 was the beginning of the present Jersey City. On the western bank of the Hudson the trading See also:post of Hobocanhackingh, on the site of the present city of Hoboken, was established at an early date. From these places and from New Amsterdam the Dutch spread into the Raritan Valley. During the See also:rule of Governor William Kieft, the Indians, disturbed by the encroachments of the settlers, assumed a hostile attitude. The actual occasion of the Indian outbreak was the See also:massacre of a number of Tappan Indians in 1643 by soldiers acting under Kieft's orders. From the See also:Connecticut to the Raritan the savages See also:rose in arms, laid See also:waste the farms, massacred the settlers and Also receives Federal aid. 2 Idem. compelled those who escaped to take See also:refuge on Manhattan ' Passenger stations and See also:depot buildings were included as part of Island.

The Dutch engaged the services of about fifty EngIishthe " main See also:

stem " until 1906, when their exclusion gave considerable men under See also:Captain See also:John Underhill, a See also:hero of the Pequot War, added revenue to the municipalities. and in 1644 the Indians were defeated in several engagements, 4 The tax on railway corporations collected by the state for local but a general peace with them was not established until the p tta url s and paid over to the local governments in 1907 amounted j 3oth of See also:August 1645. " 7y4 a Tn of another See also:nationality set The only state debt is state certificates ror 16116,000 issued co the meantime colonists Y the commissioners of the Agricultural College. ~ foot on the shores of the lower Delaware. To found a See also:colony in (Presbyterian) at Bloomfield; and the Theological Seminary of the (Dutch) Reformed Church in America, at New Brunswick. There are many private academies and secondary schools, sectarian and non-sectarian. The state supports the following charitable and correctional institutions all under the inspection of a State Department of Charities and Correction (1905); hospitals for the insane at Trenton and Morris Plains; a training-school for feeble-minded children (partly supported by the state) and a See also:home for feeble-minded See also:women at Vineland; a See also:sanatorium for tuberculous diseases at Glen See also:Gardner; a See also:village for epileptics, with a See also:farm of 700 acres, near Skillman, Somerset county; a state home (reform school) for boys near Jamesburg, Middlesex county, and for girls in See also:Ewing township, near Trenton; a state reformatory for criminals sixteen to thirty years of age, near Rahway; a state See also:prison at Trenton; a home for disabled soldiers at See also:Kearney,l Hudson county; a home for disabled soldiers, sailors and their wives at Vineland2; and a school for the See also:deaf at Trenton. There is no institution for the See also:blind, but the state pays the expenses of blind children who are sent from New Jersey to the New York State School for the Blind. A State Board of Children's Guardians, with an office in Jersey City, cares for destitute children. A convict See also:parole law went into operation in 1891. See also:Finance.—The revenues for state and for local purposes are derived from separate sources. The expenses of the state government are met chiefly by special taxes on railway and canal corporations, a See also:franchise tax on the capital stock of other corporations, a See also:collateral See also:inheritance tax and leases of riparian lands. The counties and municipalities derive their revenues chiefly from taxes on real and See also:personal property.

Real and personal property is free from a state tax, except for school purposes. The school tax is apportioned among the counties in proportion to their taxable property. A large part of the state's revenue comes from the tax on railways and canals, which is levied on the property actually employed in their operation. Any property of railways other than the " main stem " (i.e. the road-See also:

bed with the rails and sleepers not over too ft. in width),' that is employed in operating the road or canal is taxed by the state for local purposes. Counties and muricipalities may tax property within their jurisdiction belonging to railways but not actually used for railway purposes. Domestic See also:telegraph, See also:telephone, See also:express, See also:cable, parlour- and sleeping-See also:car, gas- and electric-See also:lighting, oil and See also:pipe line companies, and several classes of See also:insurance companies, are taxed on the amount of their See also:gross receipts. Other domestic corporations are taxed on the amount of their capital stock. The rate of this tax decreases as the amount of capital stock increases, thus favouring large corporations. On all capital stock up to $3,000,000, the rate is one-tenth of i %; on all amounts between three and five million dollars, the rate is one-twentieth of i %; and on all above five million dollars, thirty dollars per million, or 3/1000 of i %. An inheritance tax is levied on all bequests in excess of $50o to persons other than specially excepted classes; and in 1907 the receipts from .the " collateral inheritance tax " were $241,480. County and municipal revenue are derived from the tax on general property. The See also:poll tax is restricted almost entirely to municipalities, which devote the proceeds to roads and schools.

The fees received for issuing charters to corporations are another source of revenue to the state. Toward corporations the policy of New Jersey has always been liberal; there is no limit fixed either to capitalization or to bonded indebtedness; the tax rate, as already indicated, is lower for large than for small corporations; and so many large combinations of capital have been incorporated under the laws of the state that it is sometimes called " the home of the See also:

trusts." For the fiscal year 1907 the fees collected from corporations by the secretary of state amounted to $204,454, the receipts from the tax on corporations other than railways amounted to $2,584,363.60, and the receipts from the tax on railway corporations were $807,780.4 It is the revenue from these sources that has enabled New Jersey to dispense almost entirely with the general property tax for state purposes. The legal requirement that every See also:corporation chartered by the state must maintain its principal office there has given rise to the peculiar institution called the " corporation agency," a single office which serves as the " principal office " of numbers of corporations. At the close of the fiscal year 1907 the state was free from bonded indebtedness,' and had a See also:balance on See also:hand of $1,320,038 (much less than in 1906, because of the non-payment of railway taxes, pending litigation). In the state fund, the total the new See also:world was long the See also:desire of Gustavus See also:Adolphus of See also:Sweden, but incessant European See also:wars prevented the establishment of any settlement until after his death. In 1638 fifty colonists landed on the western bank of the Delaware and built Fort See also:Christina on the site of the See also:modern See also:Wilmington. Five years later, on the eastern bank a triangular fort, called Elfsborg, was constructed near the present Salem. But the See also:Swedish rule was short-lived, as in 1655 the settlements surrendered to Peter See also:Stuyvesant and passed under the control of the Dutch. Upon the subsequent history of New Jersey the attempts of See also:Holland and Sweden at colonization had very little influence. The Dutch and Swedes between the Delaware and the Hudson were mostly traders, and therefore did not make many permanent settlements or establish forms of government. By the English of New England and Virginia the Dutch and Swedes were regarded as intruders, and were repeatedly warned against trespassing on English soil.' As early as 1634 a patent had been issued to See also:Sir See also:Edmund Plowden, appointing him governor over New See also:Albion, a See also:tract of land including the present states of New Jersey, Delaware, See also:Maryland and Pennsylvania. In spite of great efforts, however, Sir Edmund failed to plant a colony.2 In 1634 a party of English from Virginia, having ascended the Delaware and occupied Fort Nassau, which the Dutch had abandoned, were promptly captured by the Dutch, taken to New Amsterdam, and thence sent home, arriving just in time to prevent the departure of a second English expedition up the Delaware.

In 1641 English colonists from New Haven migrated southward and planted a settlement on the eastern bank of the Delaware river, declaring it to be a part of the New Haven jurisdiction. In the following year Governor Kieft, with the assistance of the Swedes, arrested the English and sent them back to New Haven. Many years elapsed before an English See also:

sovereign made any effort to oust the Dutch from the dominions he claimed by virtue of the See also:discovery of the Cabots. On the 12th of March 1664 Charles II. bestowed upon his See also:brother James, See also:duke of York, all the lands between the Connecticut river and the eastern side of Delaware Bay, as well as all the islands between Cape Cod and the Hudson river. An expedition was sent from England in May, under the command of See also:Richard See also:Nicolls, and in the following August the English See also:flag floated over New Amsterdam. In October Sir Robert Carr took See also:possession of the settlements on the Delaware, and terminated the rule of the Dutch. The few inhabitants of what is now New Jersey acquiesced in the new See also:order. While the expedition commanded by Nicolls was still at sea, the duke of York, by deeds of See also:lease and See also:release, transferred to See also:Lord John See also:Berkeley, baron of Stratton, and Sir George See also:Carteret (q.v.), all that part of his new possessions extending eastward from the Delaware Bay and river to the Atlantic Ocean and the Hudson river, and northward from Cape May to a line drawn from the northernmost branch of the Delaware, " which is 41° 40' lat.," to the Hudson river in 410 N. lat. To this tract the name of Nova Caesarea, or New Jersey, was given, as the same name had been given in a patent to Carteret issued in 1650, to " a certain island and adjacent islets" near Virginia, in America, which were never settled—in See also:honour of Carteret, who governed the isle of Jersey in 1643–1651 and there entertained See also:Prince Charles during his See also:exile from England. The ' As early as 1613, Captain Samuel Argall, on his way to Virginia, after breaking up some Jesuit settlements at Port Royal, and See also:Mount See also:Desert, passed through the Narrows near the mouth of the Hudson, and finding a group of Dutch traders, made them haul down their flag and replace it with that of England. In the spring of 1620 See also:Thomas Dermer, an English ship captain, on his way from Monhegan to Virginia, visited Manhattan Island and told the Dutch traders that they would not be allowed to remain. In 1627 Governor William See also:Bradford of See also:Plymouth protested by letter to the Dutch against their occupancy, and this warning from the Pilgrims was repeated at least twice.

2 As See also:

late as 1784, Charles Varlo, an Englishman who had See also:purchased one-third of the grant from the heirs of Sir Edmund Plowden, came to New Jersey and sought to substantiate his claim. Failing in a suit in chancery to obtain redress, he returned to England, and nothing further was heard of the claimants to New Albion.grant conferred upon Berkeley and Carteret all the territorial rights which the royal charter had conferred upon the duke of York; but whether or not the rights of government went with these soon became a vexed question. In order to attract immigrants, the proprietors in February 1665 published their " See also:Con-cession and Agreement," by which they made See also:provision for a governor, a governor's council, and an assembly chosen by the freemen and having the power to levy taxes. Special inducements in the way of land grants were offered to persons embarking with the first governor. In the meantime Governor Nicolls of New York, ignorant of the grant to Berkeley and Carteret, had approved certain Indian sales of land to settlers within New Jersey, and had confirmed their titles to tracts in what later became Elizabethtown, See also:Middletown and Shrewsbury. In this way he unconsciously opened the way for future trouble. Moreover, when he had learned that the duke had parted with New Jersey he convinced him that it was a great loss, and in the effort to See also:save what was possible, Staten Island was taken from the proprietors on the plea that one See also:arm of the Hudson flowed along its western border. In August 1665 See also:Philip Carteret, a relative of Sir George, arrived in the See also:province as its first governor. In May 1668 he convoked the first assembly at Elizabethtown. At the next session, in the following November, the towns of Shrewsbury and Middle-town declared that they held their grants from Governor Nicolls, and that they were consequently exempt from any quit-rents the proprietors might claim. They refused to pay their share of the public expenses; and their deputies, on refusing to take the See also:oath of See also:allegiance and fidelity, were expelled from the assembly. The disaffection soon spread and led to the so-called " disorganizing" assembly in 1672, which went so far as to choose James Carteret, a See also:landgrave of Carolina and presumably a natural son of Sir George, as " President." Philip Carteret returned to England and laid the case before the proprietors; they ordered President Carteret to continue on his way to Carolina and confirmed as governor John See also:Berry, whom Governor Carteret had See also:left behind as See also:deputy.

The duke of York declared that the grants made by Nicolls were null and void; the See also:

king enjoined obedience to the proprietors, and quiet was restored. Another See also:change was impending, however, and in August 1673, when a Dutch See also:fleet appeared off Staten Island, New Jersey for a second time became a part of New Netherland. The settled region was called " Achter Koll," or " Back Bay," after Newark Bay, whose waters, lying behind the bay of New York, had to be crossed in order to reach Elizabethtown. The period of Dutch rule was short, and by the treaty of See also:Westminster, of the 9th of February 1674, the territory was restored to England. The See also:crown lawyers decided that the rights of the proprietors of New York and New Jersey had been extinguished by the See also:conquest, and that by treaty the lands had been reconveyed, not to the proprietors, but to the king. On the 13th of June 1674 Charles II. accordingly wrote a letter confirming the title and power of Carteret in the eastern half of New Jersey. No similar grant was made to Berkeley, as on the 18th of March he had sold his interest in the province to John Fenwicke, sometime See also:major in the See also:Parliamentary See also:army and later a member of the Society of See also:Friends, and See also:Edward Byllynge (d. 1687), a Quaker See also:merchant.'' On the 29th of June the duke of York received a new patent similar to that of 1664, and he at once (on the 28th and 29th of See also:July) confirmed Carteret in all his rights in that portion of New Jersey N. of a line drawn from Barnegat Creek to " Rankokus Kill "—a stream a little S. of the site of Burlington—which was considerably more than one-half of the province. The duke of York commissioned Sir Edmund See also:Andros as governor of his dominions, including " all ye land from ye West side of Connecticut River to ye East side of Delaware Bay." Sir George Carteret again sent over his kinsman Philip Carteret to be governor of the eastern part of New Jersey, and the two See also:governors arrived in October 1694 in the same ship. A disagreement arose as to 2 It has been supposed that Fenwicke and Byllynge intended to establish in America a See also:retreat for those who desired religious and political freedom. the respective interests of Fenwicke and Byllynge in the western portion of the province, and they See also:chose William See also:Penn, a new member of the Society of Friends, as arbitrator. To Byllynge Penn awarded nine-tenths of the territory and to Fenwicke one-tenth.

Financial embarrassments a short time afterward caused Byllynge to assign his shares in See also:

trust for his creditors to three See also:Quakers, William Penn, Gawen Lawrie and See also:Nicholas See also:Lucas. Later they acquired control of Fenwicke's share also. In 1675 Fenwicke with his family and a company of settlers reached the Delaware in the ship " See also:Griffith " from London, and on the eastern shore they formed a settlement to which they gave the name of Salem. This was the first permanent English settlement in this part of New Jersey. Refusing to recognize Fenwicke's jurisdiction, Governor Andros of New York attempted to secure his peaceful recognition of the duke's authority, and, failing in this, he sent a military force into this district in December 1676 and made Fenwicke a prisoner. In January, however, he was released on his promise not to act in a public capacity until he should receive further authority. Meanwhile the trustees of Byllynge were seeking a division of the province more to theif See also:advantage and, Sir George Carteret having been persuaded by the duke of York to surrender his grant of July 1674, the so-called " quintipartite See also:deed " was executed on the 1st of July 1676. This See also:instrument defined the interests of Carteret, Penn, Lawrie, Lucas and Byllynge, by fixing a line of See also:partition from Little Egg Harbor to a point on the Delaware river, in 41° 40' N. lat., and by assigning the province east of this line (East Jersey) to Carteret and the province west of this line (West Jersey), about five-eighths of the whole, to the Quaker associates. The Quakers' title to West Jersey, however, still See also:bore the See also:cloud resulting from the Dutch conquest, and the duke of York had desired to recover all of his original grant to Berkeley and Carteret ever since Governor Nicolls had protested against it. But at this time his own right to the crown of England was threatened with the Exclusion Bill, and under these conditions instead of pressing his case against the Quakers he not only permitted it to be decided against him but in August 168o confirmed their title by a new deed. A very liberal See also:frame of government for West Jersey, drafted presumably by William Penn, and entitled " the Concessions and Agreements of the Proprietors, Freeholders and Inhabitants of West Jersey in America," was adopted in March 1677. This vested the principal powers of government in an assembly of one See also:hundred members, who were to be chosen annually and to be subject to instructions from their constituents.

In the intervals between sessions of the assembly, affairs were to be managed by ten commissioners chosen by that body. Religious See also:

toleration was assured. In August 1677 the ship " See also:Kent " arrived in the Delaware, with 230 Quakers from London and See also:Yorkshire. These founded a settlement, which became the modern Burlington, and in the next few months several hundred more colonists arrived. But the new colony was never actually governed under " the Concessions and Agreements "; for from the beginning until the first assembly was called in November 1681 its affairs were managed by commissioners named by the proprietors and when in 168o the duke of York confirmed the title to the land to Byllynge and his associates he conveyed the right to govern to Byllynge alone. Although he was one of the signers of " the Concessions and Agreements " Byllynge now commissioned Samuel Jennings as governor of the province, and the other proprietors acquiesced, appointing Byllynge governor and permitting Jennings to serve as his deputy. Jennings immediately called the first assembly, and this body passed a number of fundamental laws which provided for a governor and council, but were in other respects much like the clauses See also:relating to government in " the Concessions and Agreements." When; as if to test his authority, Byllynge, in 1682-1683, removed Jennings who had been a popular governor, the assembly, by the advice of William Penn, passed a series of resolutions in the form of a protest, and in 1684 two agents were sent to England to negotiate with Byllynge. There the dispute was finally submitted for See also:arbitration to George Fox and other Quakers, and they decidedthat, as the government of the province was legally vested in Byllynge by the duke's See also:conveyance to him, he had the right to name the deputy governor. Fenwicke, after his release by Andros, endeavoured to re-establish a government at Salem with himself as " Lord and Chief Proprietor " of 'Vest Jersey, but the duke's officers further contested his claims and in 1682 Penn effected a peaceful settlement with him. In East Jersey, after the return of Governor Carteret, there was a period of quiet, until the death of Sir George Carteret in 168o gave the zealous Andros another See also:chance to further the supposed interests of his ducal master. Claiming jurisdiction over New Jersey by the terms of his commission, he issued a See also:proclamation in March 168o ordering Philip Carteret and his " pretended " officers to cease exercising jurisdiction within the duke's dominions unless he could show See also:warrant. To this Carteret made a spirited reply, and on the 3oth of April a detachment of soldiers dragged the governor of East Jersey from his bed and carried him prisoner to New York.

Here he was confined for four weeks, and was released only on his promise not to exercise any authority until the matter could be referred to England for See also:

adjudication. When the assembly of East Jersey met in June, Andros appeared before it as governor and recommended such See also:measures as he deemed advisable, but the deputies refused to pass them. In England, too, his conduct was disavowed, and he was called home to See also:answer charges that had been preferred against him. Philip Carteret reassumed the duties of his office, but his administration, now that Andros was no longer feared, was again marked by much See also:friction with the assembly. Sir George Carteret had bequeathed his province to eight trustees, who were to administer it for the benefit of his creditors, and for the next two years the government was conducted in the name of his widow and executrix, See also:Lady Elizabeth. Early in 1682, after several unsuccessful attempts to effect a sale by other means, the province was offered for sale at public See also:auction, and was purchased by William Penn and eleven associates for £3400. Later each of these twelve sold one-half of his share to another associate, thus making twenty-four proprietors; and on the 14th of March the duke of York con-firmed the sale, and gave them all the powers necessary for governing the province. Robert See also:Barclay, one of the proprietors, was chosen governor for See also:life, with the See also:privilege of performing his duties by deputy, and as his deputy he sent over Thomas Rudyard. In 1683 Rudyard was succeeded by Gawen Lawrie, who brought over with him a curious frame of government entitled " the Fundamental Constitutions." This instrument, which was designed-to replace the Concessions, provided for the government of the province by a governor chosen by the proprietors, a common council consisting of the proprietors or their proxies together with 12 freemen, and a great council consisting of the proprietors or their proxies together with 144 freemen chosen by a mixed system of elections and the casting of lots. But the new system was to apply only to those who, in return for the greater privileges which it was alleged to ensure, would agree to a resurvey of their lands, arrange to pay quit-rents and provide for the permanent support of the government, and as Governor Lawrie found the colonists generally unwilling to make the See also:exchange on the proposed terms, he discreetly refrained from any See also:attempt to put the Fundamental Constitutions in operation and thereby avoided the confusion which must have resulted from two sets of laws. The government of the twenty-four proprietors, however, was liberal. Recognizing the See also:necessity of some one in the province with full power " to do all things that may contribute to the good and See also:advancement of the same," they directed the See also:appointment of the American Board of Proprietors—a body of men identified with the province, who with the deputy-governor were to look after the proprietary interests in such matters as the approval of legislation and the granting of lands, and thereby prevent the delay caused by the transmission of such matters to England for approval.

In 1686 another effort was made to put the Fundamental Constitutions in force, but when the deputies and the council rejected the instrument, the proprietors did not force the matter. In 1686 Perth Amboy, the newly created port of East Jersey, became its seat of government. After his See also:

accession to the throne in 1685, James II. showed an unyielding determination to annul the privileges of the colonies, and to unite New York, New Jersey and the New England colonies under a single government. In order, therefore, to save their rights in the soil, the proprietors of East and West Jersey offered to surrender their claims to jurisdiction, and to this arrangement the king consented. Andros, previously appointed See also:viceroy of New England, thereupon received a new commission extending his authority over New York and the Jerseys, and in August 1688 he formally annexed these provinces to the Dominion of New England. The seizure of Andros by the people of See also:Boston in April 1689, following the See also:news of the revolt in England against James II., gave the Jersey proprietors an opportunity to resume their rights, but the proprietary governments regained their former footing very slowly. The proprietors were widely separated—some being in America, some in England and others in See also:Scotland—and unity of action was impracticable. For three years there was little or no government in the Jerseys, beyond the measures taken by local officers for preserving the peace. In 1692 an important change occurred in the administrative system through the appointment of See also:Andrew See also:Hamilton (d. 1703) as governor of both East and West Jersey. In 1697 a See also:faction opposed to Hamilton secured his removal and the appointment of their See also:partisan, See also:Jeremiah Basse. The opposition in the two colonies to Basse became so formidable that he was removed in 1699 and Hamilton was reappointed.

Certain disaffected elements thereupon refused to recognize his authority, on the ground that his appointment had not received the required approval of the crown, and for a time the condition of the provinces bordered on anarchy. These disorders, and especially complaints against the Jerseys as centres of illegal trade, were brought to the See also:

attention of King William and his lawyers contended that as only the king could convey powers of government those exercised by the Jersey proprietors, derived as they were from the duke of York, were without sufficient warrant. Moreover, the inhabitants sent petitions to England, praying that they might be placed under the direct control of the crown. The proprietors of East Jersey had already offered to surrender their jurisdiction, in return for certain concessions by the royal government, but no action had been taken. In 1701 the proprietors of both provinces made another proposal, which was accepted, and in April 1702 all rights of jurisdiction were transferred to the crown, while the rights to the soil remained in the proprietors. The provinces of East and West Jersey were then united under a government similar to that of the other royal provinces. Until 1738 the governor of New York was also governor of New Jersey; after that date each colony had its own governor. The legislature met alternately at Burlington and Perth Amboy, until 1990, when Trenton was selected as the capital of the state. The next four decades were years of development disturbed, however, by friction between the assembly and the royal governors, and by See also:bitter disputes, accompanied by much rioting, with the proprietors concerning land-titles (1744–1749)• Independence of the absentee landlords was again claimed by virtue of the grants made by Nicolls nearly a century before. Agri-culture at this time was the main pursuit. The climate was more temperate and the soil more fertile than that of New England; but there were similar small farms and no marked tendencies towards the See also:plantation system of the southern colonies. See also:Slavery had been introduced by the Dutch and Swedes, and from the time of the earliest English occupation had been legally recognized.

East Jersey had a fugitive slave law as early as 1675, With the exception of laying an import See also:

duty no legislative effort was made—nor is it likely that any would have been allowed by the crown—to restrict the importation of slaves during the colonial period. In addition to See also:African and Indian slaves there was the class known as " redemptioners," or term slaves, consisting of indented servants, who bound themselves to theirmasters before leaving the See also:mother country, and " free willers," who allowed themselves to be sold after reaching America, in order to reimburse the ship captain for the cost of their passage. Between East and West Jersey certain political and religious See also:differences See also:developed. The former, settled largely by people from New England and Long Island, was dominated by Puritans; the latter by Quakers. In East Jersey, as in New England, the township became a vigorous element of local government; in West Jersey the county became the unit. Important events in the period of royal government were the See also:preaching of George See also:Whitefield in 1739 and the following years, 'and the chartering of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1746, and of See also:Queen's (now Rutgers) College in 1766. The colony gave many proofs of its See also:loyalty to the mother country: it furnished three companies of troops for See also:Admiral Vernon's unfortunate expedition against See also:Cartagena in 1741; in King George's War it raised £2000 for supplies, furnished troops for the See also:capture of See also:Louisburg and sent over six hundred men to See also:Albany; and in the French and Indian (or Seven Years') War . its See also:militia participated in the capture of both See also:Quebec and See also:Havana. Against England the colony had fewer grievances than did some of its more commercial neighbours, but the See also:Stamp Act and the subsequent efforts to tax See also:tea aroused great opposition. In 1774 occurred the " See also:Greenwich Tea Party."1 The last colonial assembly of New Jersey met in November 1775., From the 26th of May to the and of July 1776 the second provincial See also:congress met at Burlington, Trenton and New Bruns-wick and for a time became the supreme governing power. By its orders the royal governor, William Franklin (the natural son of See also:Benjamin Franklin) was arrested and deported to Connecticut, where he remained a prisoner for two years, until exchanged and taken to New York under See also:British protection. Following the recommendation of the See also:Continental Congress, that the colonies should create See also:independent governments, the provincial congress also drafted a provincial constitution, which, without being submitted to the people, was published on the 3rd of July 1776; it contained the stipulation that "if a reconciliation between Great See also:Britain and these colonies should take place, and the latter be taken again under the protection of the crown of Britain, this charter shall be null and void—otherwise to remain firm and inviolable." On the loth of September 1777 it was amended by the New Jersey legislature, the words "state" and "states" being substituted for the words " colony" (or " province" ) and " colonies." The state furnished a full See also:quota for the Continental army, but the divided sentiment of the people is shown by the fact that six battalions of See also:loyalists were also organized. Tories were active in New Jersey throughout the struggle; among them were bands known as " Pine Robbers," who hid in the pines or along the See also:dunes by day and made their raids at See also:night.

In the state were fought some of the most important engagements of the war. When Washington, in the autumn of 1776, was no longer able to hold the lower Hudson he retreated across New Jersey to the Delaware near Trenton and seizing every boat for See also:

miles up the river he placed his dispirited troops on the opposite side and left the pursuing army no means of crossing. With about 2500 men he recrossed the Delaware on the night of the 25th of December, surprised three regiments of Hessians at Trenton the next morning, and took r000 prisoners and loco stands of arms. In a series of movements following up this success he outgeneraled the British See also:commander, Lord See also:Cornwallis, and on the 3rd of January 1776, defeated a detachment of his army at Princeton (q.v.). The American army then went into winter quarters at Morristown, while a part of the British army wintered at New Brunswick. To protect 'the 1 Greenwich then had some importance as a port on Cohansey Creek on the lower Delaware. In the summer of 1774 the captain of the ship " Greyhound," bound for Philadelphia with a See also:cargo of tea; on account of the state of See also:opinion in that city, put in at Greenwich and stored his tea there in a cellar. It remained undisturbed till the night of the 22nd of November, when a See also:band of about 4o men dressed as Indians, in See also:imitation of the Boston party, See also:broke into the cellar and made a See also:bonfire of the tea. All attempts to punish the offenders were futile. inhabitants of the Raritan Valley from British foraging parties General Benjamin See also:Lincoln with 500 men was by Washington's orders stationed at Bound Brook, but on the 13th of April 1777 Lincoln was surprised by a force of about 4000 men under Cornwallis, and although he escaped with small loss it was only by remarkably rapid movements. When the British had gained possession of Philadelphia, in September 1777, their communicatiotl between that city and the ocean through the Lower Delaware was obstructed on the New jersey side by Fort Mercer, commanded by See also:Colonel See also:Christopher See also:Greene, at Red Bank; three battalions of Hessians under Colonel Karl Emil Kurt von Dollop attacked the fort on the 22nd of October, but they were repulsed with heavy loss. The fort was abandoned later, however.

As the British army under General See also:

Clinton was retreating, in June 1778, from Philadelphia to New York, the American army engaged it in the See also:battle of Monmouth (June 28, 1778); the result was indecisive, but that the British were not badly defeated was ascribed to the conduct of General Charles Lee. Before daylight on the 19th of August 1779 was approaching, Major Henry Lee with a force of about 400 men surprised the British See also:garrison at Paulus Hook, where Jersey City now stands, and, although sustaining a loss of 20 men; killed so of the garrison and took about 16o prisoners. In 1779–1780 Morristown was again Washington's headquarters. The Congress of the See also:Confederation met in Princeton, in Nassau Hall, which still stands, from June to November 1783. After the war New Jersey found its commercial existence threatened by New York and Philadelphia, and it was a feeling of weakness from this cause rather than any lack of state See also:pride that caused the state to join in the movements for a closer Federal Union. In 1786 New Jersey sent delegates to the See also:Annapolis See also:Convention, which was the forerunner of the Federal Convention at Philadelphia in the following year. In the latter body, on the 15th of June, one of the New jersey delegates, William Paterson (1745–1806), presented what was called the " New Jersey See also:plan " of union, representing the wishes of the smaller states, which objected to representation in a See also:national Congress being based on See also:wealth or on population. This merely federal plan, reported from a See also:Conference attended by the delegates from Connecticut, New York and Delaware, as well as those from New Jersey (arid by See also:Luther See also:Martin of Maryland), consisted of nine resolutions; the first was that " the Articles of Confederation ought to be so revised, corrected and enlarged as to render the federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of government and the preservation of the Union "; and the actual " plan " was for a single legislative body, in which each state should be represented by one member, and which should elect the supreme court and have power to remove the executive (a Council), to lay taxes and import duties, to control See also:commerce, and even, if necessary, to make requisitions for funds from the states. Madison opposed the plan, on the ground that it would not prevent violations by the states of See also:treaties and of laws of nations. On the first See also:resolution only there was a definite vote; on the 19th of June it was voted to postpone the See also:consideration of this resolution and to See also:report the resolutions (the Virginia plan) formerly agreed upon by the See also:committee of the whole. The New Jersey plan left its impress in the provision of the Constitution (approved in the Convention on the 7th of July) for equal representation in the national Senate. The Federal Constitution was ratified by a unanimous vote in the state convention which met at Trenton on the 18th of Decemberpounds proclamation money, in real and personal estate, in the same county." These and the property qualifications for suffrage, which was granted to " all inhabitants of this state, of full age, who are worth fifty pounds proclamation money, clear estate in the same," &c., were soon considered undemocratic; and the democratic tendency of certain election officers may be seen from their construing the words " all inhabitants of full age " to include women, and from their permitting women to vote.

The governor was chosen by the joint vote of the council and assembly; he was president of the council, with a casting vote; he was chancellor, captain-general and commander-in-chief of the militia; he had three members of the legislature to act as a privy-council; and he, with the council (of which seven formed a See also:

quorum), constituted " the Court of Appeals in the last resort in all causes of law, as heretofore," which, in addition, had " the power of granting pardons to criminals, after condemnation, in all cases of treason, See also:felony or other offences." In 1838 the opposition to the governor's extensive powers under the constitution was greatly increased in the " Broad See also:Seal " or Great Seal " War. After a closely contested election in which six members of Congress were chosen on a general See also:ticket, although there was an apparent Democratic majority of about one hundred votes (in a total of 57,000), two county clerks rejected as irregular sufficient returns from townships to elect five Whig candidates to whom the state board of canvassers (mostly Whigs and headed by the Whig governor, William Pennington) gave commissions under the broad seal of the state. Excluding these five members from New Jersey the House of Representatives contained 119 Democrats and 118 Whigs, so that the choice of a Whig See also:speaker could be secured only by the seating of the five Whigs from New Jersey rather than their Democratic rivals. It was decided that only members whose seats were not contested should vote for speaker, and Robert M. T. See also:Hunter, of Virginia, a Democrat and a See also:compromise See also:candidate, was elected to the position; and on the 28th of February 1839 the Democratic candidates were admitted to their seats, to which a congressional committee, See also:reporting afterwards, declared them entitled.' Agitation for constitutional reform resulted in a constitutional convention, which met at Trenton from the 14th of May to the 29th of June 1844 and drafted a new frame of government, introducing a number of See also:radical changes. This instrument was ratified at the polls on the 13th of August. The election of the governor was taken from the legislature and given to the people; the powers of government were distributed among legislative, executive and judicial departments; representation in the assembly was based on population; and the property qualification for membership in the legislature and for the suffrage wp,s ' The election to the U.S. Senate in 1865 of John See also:Potter Stockton (1826-1900), a great-See also:grandson of Richard Stockton, a signer of the See also:Declaration of Independence, created hardly less excitement than the Broad Seal War. The state legislature which elected him senator did so by a See also:plurality vote, having previously passed a resolution changing the vote requisite to choose a senator from a majority to a plurality vote. He took his seat in the Senate and his election was upheld by the Senate committee on the judiciary, whose report was adopted (26 March 1866) by a vote of 22 to 21, his own vote carrying the See also:motion; but, because of the objection of Charles See also:Sumner, he withdrew his vote on the 27th of March, and was thereupon unseated by a vote of 23 to 21. 1787.

The state's own constitution, which had been adopted in 1776 and amended in 1777, retained, like other state constitutions framed during the War of Independence, many features of colonial government See also:

ill-adapted to a state increasingly democratic. The basis of representation, each county electing three members to the assembly and one member to the legislative council, soon became antiquated. The property qualifications were, for members of the council, " one thousand pounds proclamation money, of real and personal estate, in the same county," and, for members of the assembly, " five hundred abolished. The constitution of 1844 declared that " All men are by nature free and independent, and have certain unalienable rights, among which are those of enjoying and defending life and See also:liberty . . . and of pursuing and obtaining safety and happiness." A similar clause in the constitution of Massachusetts had been interpreted by the courts as an abolition of slavery, and an effort was made to have the same ruling applied in New Jersey, where the institution of slavery still existed. The courts, however, declared that the clause in the constitution of New Jersey was a " general proposition," not applying " to man in his private, industrial or domestic capacity." An attempt at abolition had previously been made in 1804 by an act declaring that every child born of a. slave should be free, but should remain the servant of its mother's owner until twenty-five years of age if a male or twenty-one years of age if a See also:female. The owner of the mother, however, might abandon the child after a year, and it then became a public charge. This last provision produced such a heavy drain on the See also:treasury for the support of abandoned negro children that in 1811 the See also:statute was repealed. In 1846 an act was passed designating slaves as apprentices bound to service until discharged by their owners, and providing that children of such apprentices should be free at See also:birth, but were to be supported by the masters of their parents for six years. There were consequently a few vestiges of the slavery system in New Jersey until the See also:adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution. Toward the political questions that disturbed the American people immediately before the Civil War the attitude of the state was conservative. In 1852 the Free-soil candidate for the See also:presidency received only 350 votes in New Jersey; and in 1856 the Democratic candidate received a plurality of 18,605 votes, even though William L.

See also:

Dayton, a citizen of the state, was the Republican nominee for the vice-presidency. In 186o three of the state's electoral votes were given to See also:Douglas and four .to Lincoln. During the Civil War New Jersey furnished 89,305 men for the Union cause and incurred extraordinary expenditures to the amount of $2,894,385. The state readily consented to the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Federal Constitution, but in 1868 withdrew its consent to the latter. The Fifteenth Amendment was rejected by one legislature, but was accepted by its successor, in which the Republican party had obtained a majority. Industrially the early part of the 19th century was marked in New Jersey by the construction of See also:bridges and turnpikes, the utilization of water power for manufactures, and the introduction of See also:steam See also:motive power upon the navigable waters. The second war with England interrupted this material progress, and at its beginning was so unpopular, especially with the Quakers, that the Federalists carried the elections in the autumn of 1812. But the attempt of this party to retain control by a " gerrymandering " process was unsuccessful. The Democrats were triumphant in 1813, and the Federalist as well as the Democratic administration responded with aid for the See also:defence of New York and Philadelphia. The state also contributed several hundred men to the service of the United States. Material progress in New Jersey after the war is indicated by the construction of the Morris (1824-1836) and the Delaware & Raritan (1826-1838) canals, and the completion of its first railway, the Camden & Amboy, in 1834. The years following the Civil War were marked by great industrial development.

The numerous projects, good and See also:

bad, that were inaugurated in 1866-1875, and the various kinds of laws and charters conferring special privileges that were secured, led to the constitutional See also:prohibition of special legislation already mentioned. In this same period there was a bitter railway war. The Delaware & Raritan Canal Company and the Camden & Amboy Railroad Company, both chartered in 183o and both monopolies,1 had been practically consolidated in 1831; in 1836 these joint companies gained control of the Philadelphia & Trenton railway; in 1867 these " United New Jersey Railroad & Canal Companies " consolidated with the New Jersey Railroad & Transportation Company (which was opened in 1836 and controlled the important railway See also:link between New Brunswick and Jersey City), and profits were to be divided equally between the four companies; and in 1871 these entire properties were leased for 999 years to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. This See also:combination threatened to monopolize traffic, and it was opposed by the Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and a branch of the North Pennsylvania (from Jenkintown to Yardley; sometimes called the " national " or " air-line "), and by the general public; and in 1873 the state passed a general railway law giving other railways than the United New Jersey holdings of the Penn- 1 In 1864 a bill was introduced in 'the Federal House of Representatives making the Camden & Atlantic (now the Atlantic City) railway and the Raritan & Delaware Bay (now a part of the Central of New Jersey) a post route between New York and Philadelphia and authorizing these railways to carry passengers and freight between New York and Philadelphia. Thereupon the governor and legislature of New Jersey protested that such a measure was an infringement of the reserved rights of the state, since the state had contracted with the Camden & Amboy not to construct nor to authorize others to construct within a specified time any other railway across the state to be used for carrying passengers or freight between New York and Philadelphia. A reform See also:movement in politics, called the " New Idea," and led by See also:Everett See also:Colby (b. 1874), then a Republican member of the Assembly and in 1906-1908 a state senator, began in 1904; it did much to secure the passage of acts limiting public service franchises to 20 years (unless extended to 40 years by the voters of the See also:municipality concerned), the increase of taxes on railways, the increase of franchise tax rates by I a % each year up to 5 %, the adoption of direct primary elections, and the modification of the existing promoters' liability law. Before 'Soo the state was dominated by the Federalist party; from that date until 1896 it was generally controlled by the Democrats, and from 1896 to 1911 by the Republicans. The governors of New Jersey have been as follows: GOVERNORS: UNDER THE PROPRIETORS Philip Carteret . . 1665-1672 John Berry 1672-1673 See also:Anthony Colve2 . . 1673-1674 Governors of East Jersey and their Deputies. Philip Carteret .

. 1674-1682 Robert Barclay . 1682-1688 Thomas Rudyard Deputy . 1682—1683 Gawen Lawrie Deputy . 1683—1686 Lord See also:

Neill See also:Campbell Deputy 1686 Andrew Hamilton Deputy . 1686-1688 Edmund Andros . 1688—1689 Andrew Hamilton . 1692—1697 Jeremiah Basse . 1697—1699 Andrew Hamilton . 1699-1702 Governors of West Jersey and their Deputies. Edward Byllynge 168o-1687 Samuel Jennings Deputy 1681—1684 Thomas See also:Olive Deputy . 1684—1685 John See also:Skene . Deputy .

1685-1687 See also:

Daniel See also:Coxe . 1687-1688 Edward Hunloke . Deputy 1687 Edmund Andros . . 1688-1689 Andrew Hamilton . 1692—1697 Jeremiah Basse . 1697—1699 Andrew Hamilton .

End of Article: NEW JERSEY

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