Online Encyclopedia

matter on angling history, literature, and other topics; R. Blakey, Angling Literature (London, 1856), inaccurate and badly arranged, but containing a See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

DEAL

deal of curious matter not to be found else-where; O. See also:

Lambert, Angling Literature in See also:

England (London, 1881), a good little See also:

general survey; J. J.

See also:

MANLEY, MARY DE LA RIVIERE (c. 1663-1724)

Manley, Fish and Fishing (London, 1881), with chapters on fishing literature, &c.; R. B. See also:

Marston, See also:

Walton and Some Earlier Writers on Fish and Fishing (London and New York, 1894) ; Piscatorial Society's Papers (vol. i. London, 189o), contains a paper on " The Useful and See also:

FINE

Fine Arts in their Relation to Fish and Fishing," by S. C. See also:

Harding; Super Flumina (Anon.; London, 1904), gives passim useful See also:

INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information on fishing literature; T. Westwood and T. Satchell, Bibliotheca Piscatoria (London, 1883) an admirable bibliography of the sport : together with the supplement prepared by R. B. Marston, 1901, it may be considered wonderfully See also:

COMPLETE

complete. Methods and Practice.—General Fresh-See also:

WATER

water Fishing: F. See also:

Francis, A Book on Angling (London, 1885), though old, a thoroughly See also:

sound See also:

TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-book, particularly good on See also:

salmon fishing; H.

C. Pennell and others, Fishing—Salmon and See also:

TROUT (Salmo trutta)

Trout and See also:

Pike and Coarse Fish (See also:

BADMINTON, or GREAT BADMINTON

Badminton Library, 2 vols., London, 1904) ; See also:

John Bickerdyke, The Book of the All-See also:

ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

Round Angler (London, 1900) ; See also:

HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace G. See also:

Hutchinson and others, Fishing (See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

Country See also:

LIFE

Life Series, 2 vols., London, 1904), contains useful ichthyological notes by G. A. Boulenger, a chapter on " The Feeding of Salmon in Fresh-Water," by Dr J. See also:

Kingston See also:

Barton, and a detailed See also:

account of the See also:

PRINCIPAL

principal salmon See also:

rivers of See also:

Norway, by C. E. Radclyffe. Salmon and Trout.—See also:

Major J. P. See also:

TRAHERNE, THOMAS (1637?-1674)

Traherne, The Habits of the Salmon (London, 1889) ; G. M.

Kelson, The Salmon See also:

FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

Fly (London, 1895), contains instructions on dressing salmon-flies; A. E. Gathorne See also:

Hardy, The Salmon (" See also:

FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

Fur, See also:

FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898) ; See also:

Sir H. See also:

Maxwell, Bt., Salmon and See also:

Sea Trout (Angler's Library, London, 1898) ; Sir E. See also:

Grey, Bt., Fly Fishing (Haddon See also:

Hall Library, London and New York, 1899) ; W. See also:

EARL

Earl See also:

HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894)

Hodgson, Salmon Fishing (London, 1906), contains a series of coloured plates of salmon flies; See also:

MARQUIS

Marquis of See also:

GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS, MARQUESS

Granby, The Trout (" Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898). \See also:

Vet Fly Fishing: W. C. See also:

Stewart, The See also:

PRACTICAL

Practical Angler (London, 1905), a new edition of an old but still valuable See also:

WORK

work; E. M. See also:

TOD, JAMES (1782-1835)

Tod, Wet Fly Fishing (London, 1903); W. Earl Hodgson, Trout Fishing (London, 1905), contains a series of admirable coloured plates of artificial flies.

Dry Fly Fishing: F. M. Halford, Dry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice (London, 1902), the See also:

standard work on the subject; G. A. B. See also:

DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- )

Dewar, The Book of the Dry Fly (London, 1897). See also:

GRAYLING (Thymallus)

Grayling: T. E. Pritt, The Book of the Grayling (See also:

Leeds, 1888) ; H. A. Rolt, Grayling Fishing in See also:

South Country Streams (London, 1905). Coarse Fish.—C.

H. Wheeley, Coarse Fish (Angler's Library, London, 1897) ; J. W. See also:

Martin, Practical Fishing (London) ; See also:

FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

Float-fishing and See also:

SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

Spinning (London, 1885); W. See also:

SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864)

Senior and others, Pike and See also:

Perch (" Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 190o) ; A. J. Jardine, Pike and Perch (Angler's Library, London, 1898) ; H. C. Pennell, The Book of the Pike (London, 1884) ; Greville Fennell, The Book of the See also:

ROACH (Leuciscus rulilus)

Roach (London, 1884). Sea Fishing.—J. C. Wilcocks, The Sea Fisherman (London, 1884); John Bickerdyke (and others), Sea Fishing (Badminton Library, London, 1895) ; Practical Letters to Sea Fishers (London, 1902) ; F.

G. Aflalo, Sea Fish (Angler's Library, London, 1897) ; P. L. Haslope, Practical Sea Fishing (London, 1905). Tackle, Flies, &c.—H. C. Pennell, Modern Improvements in Fishing Tackle (London, 1887); H. P. See also:

Wells, Fly Rods and Fly Tackle (New York and London, 1901); A. Ronalds, The Fly-See also:

Fisher's See also:

ENTOMOLOGY (Gr. iv-roµa, insects, and Xiryos, a discourse)

Entomology (London, 1883) ; F. M. Halford, Dry Fly Entomology (London, 1902) ; Floating Flies and How to See also:

DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

Dress them (London, 1886) ; T.

E. Pritt, See also:

North Country Flies (London, 1886) ; H. G. M'Clelland, How to tie Flies for Trout and Grayling (London, 1905); Capt. J. H. See also:

Hale, how to tie Salmon Flies (London, 1892) ; F. G. Aflalo, John Bickerdyke and C. H. Wheeley, How to buy Fishing Tackle (London). See also:

ICHTHYOLOGY (from Gr. LxObs, fish, and Xoyos, doctrine or treatise)

Ichthyology, See also:

FISHERIES

Fisheries, Fish-Culture, &c.—Dr Francis See also:

Day, Fishes of See also:

GREAT

Great See also:

BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and See also:

Ireland (2 vols., London, 1889) ; See also:

BRITISH

British and Irish Salmonidae (London, 1887) ; Dr A.

C. L. G. See also:

GUNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1695-1723)

Gunther, Introduction to the Study of Fishes (London, 188o) ; Dr D. S. See also:

Jordan, A See also:

GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

Guide to the Study of Fishes (2 vols., New York and London, 1905) ; F. Francis, Practical Management of Fisheries (London, 1883) ; Fish Culture (London, 1865) ; F. M. Halford, Making a See also:

FISHERY (LAW OF)

Fishery (London, 1902) ; J. J. Armistead, An Angler's See also:

PARADISE (Gr. lrap6BEwos)

Paradise (See also:

DUMFRIES (Gaelic, " the fort in the copse ")

Dumfries, 1902) ; F. See also:

Mather, Modern Fish-Culture (New York, 1899) ; See also:

LIVINGSTONE, DAVID (1813-1873)

Livingstone See also:

Stone, Domesticated Trout (See also:

CHARLESTOWN

Charlestown and London, 1896).

.4 ngling Guide Books, See also:

GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical Information, &c.—Great Britain: The Angler's See also:

DIARY

Diary (London), gives information about most important See also:

WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters in the British Isles, and about some See also:

FOREIGN

foreign waters, published annually; The Sportsman's and Tourist's Guide to See also:

Scotland (London), a good guide to angling in Scotland, published twice a See also:

YEAR

year; See also:

AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus Grimble, The Salmon Rivers of Scotland (London, 1900, 4 vols.); The Salmon Rivers of Ireland (London, 1903) ; The Salmon and Sea Trout Rivers of England and See also:

WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales (London, 1904, 2 vols.), this fine series gives See also:

minute information as to salmon pools, flies, seasons, history, catches, &c. ; W. M. Gallichan, Fishing in Wales (London, 1903) ; Fishing in See also:

DERBYSHIRE

Derbyshire (London, 1905) ; J. See also:

Watson, See also:

ENGLISH

English Lake See also:

DISTRICT

District Fisheries (London, 1899) ; C. See also:

Wade, Exmoor Streams (London, 1903) ; G. A. B. Dewar, South Country Trout Streams (London, 1899) ; " Hi Regan," How and Where to Fish in Ireland (London, 1900) ; E. S. Shrubsole, The See also:

LAND

Land of Lakes (London, 1906), a guide to fishing in See also:

COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

County See also:

DONEGAL

Donegal). Europe: " See also:

Palmer Hackle," Hints on Angling (London, 1846), contains " suggestions for angling excursions in See also:

France and See also:

Belgium," but they are too old to be of much service; W.

M. Gallichan, Fishing and Travel in See also:

Spain (London, 1905) ; G. W. See also:

Hartley, See also:

WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

Wild Sport with Gun, See also:

RIFLE

Rifle and Salmon Rod (Edinburgh, 1903), contains a chapter on huchen fishing; Max von dem See also:

BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

Borne, Wegweiser fur Angler durch Deutschland, Oesterreich and See also:

die Schweiz (See also:

Berlin, 1877), a book of good conception and arrangement, and still useful, though out of date in many particulars; Illustrierte Angler-Schule (der deutschen Fischerei Zeitung), See also:

STETTIN

Stettin, contains good chapters on the See also:

WELS

wels and huchen; H. Storck, Der Angelsport (See also:

MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, 1898), contains a certain amount of geographical information; E. B. See also:

Kennedy, See also:

THIRTY

Thirty Seasons in Scandinavia (London, 1904), contains useful information about fishing; General E. F. See also:

Burton, Trouting in Norway (London, 1897) ; See also:

Abel See also:

Chapman, Wild Norway (London, 1897); F. See also:

SANDEMAN, SIR ROBERT GROVES (1835-1892)

Sandeman, Angling Travels in Norway (London, 1895). See also:

AMERICA

America: C. F.

Holder, Big See also:

GAME

Game Fishes of the See also:

UNITED

United States (New York, 1903) ; J. A. Henshall, See also:

Bass, Pike, Perch and Pickerel (New York, 1903) ; See also:

Dean See also:

SAGE, RUSSELL (1816-1906)

Sage and others, Salmon and Trout (New York, 1902) ; E. T. D. See also:

Chambers, Angler's Guide to Eastern See also:

CANADA

Canada (See also:

QUEBEC

Quebec, 1899); See also:

ROWLAND, HENRY AUGUSTUS (1848-1901)

Rowland See also:

Ward, The English Angler in See also:

FLORIDA

Florida (London, 1898) ; J. See also:

Turner Turner, The See also:

GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant, jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante—cf. Ital. gigante—by assimilation from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas)

Giant Fish of Florida (London, 1902). See also:

India: H. S. See also:

Thomas, The Rod in India (London, 1897); "See also:

SKENE, WILLIAM FORBES (1809–1892)

Skene Dhu," The Mighty See also:

MAHSEER, or MAHASEER (Barbus mosal)

Mahseer (See also:

MADRAS

Madras, 1906), contains a chapter on the See also:

ACCLIMATIZATION

acclimatization of trout in India and See also:

CEYLON

Ceylon. New See also:

ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand: W. H.

Spackman, Trout in New Zealand (London, 1894) ; Capt. See also:

Hamilton, Trout Fishing and Sport in Maoriland (See also:

Wellington, 1905), contains a valuable See also:

section on fishing waters. Fishery See also:

Law.-G. C. Oke, A Handy Book of the Fishery See also:

LAWS

Laws (edited by J. W. See also:

Willis See also:

BAND

Band and A. C. M'Barnet, London, 1903). ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, the contention that the British See also:

PEOPLE

people in the United See also:

KINGDOM

Kingdom, its colonies, and the United States, are the racial descendants of the " ten tribes " forming the kingdom of See also:

ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel, large See also:

numbers of whom were deported by See also:

SARGON

Sargon See also:

king of See also:

ASSYRIA

Assyria on the fall of See also:

SAMARIA

Samaria in 721 B.C. The theory (which is fully set forth in a book called See also:

Philo-Israel) rests on premises which are deemed by scholars—both theological and anthropological—to be utterly unsound. ANGLO-See also:

NORMAN LITERATURE: The See also:

French See also:

LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language (q.v.) came over to England with See also:

William the Conqueror.

During the whole of the 12th See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century it shared with Latin the distinction of being the See also:

LITERARY

literary language of England, and it was in use at the See also:

court until the 14th century. It was not until the reign of See also:

Henry IV. that' English became the native See also:

TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue of the See also:

KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of England. After the loss of the French provinces, See also:

SCHOOLS

schools for the teaching of French were established in England, among the most celebrated of which we may quote that of See also:

Marlborough. The language then underwent certain changes which gradually distinguished it from the French spoken in France; but, except for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules of See also:

PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the language was subjected were the individual modifications of the various authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo-Norman writers, an Anglo-Norman language, properly so called, gradually ceased to exist. The See also:

PRESTIGE

prestige enjoyed by the French language, which, in the 14th century, the author of the Maniere de language calls " le plus See also:

bel et le plus gracious language et plus See also:

NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde et de touz genz mieulx prisee et amee que nul autre (quar Dieux le fist si See also:

DOUCE, FRANCIS (1757-1834)

douce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce it pent comparer au parler See also:

des angels du ciel, pour la See also:

GRAND

grand doulceur et biaultee d'icel)," was such that it was not till 1363 that the See also:

CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

chancellor opened the See also:

PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary session with an English speech. And although the See also:

HUNDRED

Hundred Years' See also:

War led to a decline in the study of French and the disappearance of Anglo-Norman literature, the French language continued, through some vicissitudes, to be the classical language of the courts of See also:

JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice until the 17th century. It is still the language of the Channel Islands, though there too it tends more and more to give way before the advance of English. It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing See also:

period of AngIo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the See also:

LATH (0. Eng. laett, Mid. Eng. lappe, a form possibly due to the Welsh llath; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch lat, Ger. Latte, and has passed into Romanic, cf. Ital. latta, Fr. latte)

lath century to the end of the first See also:

QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 13th. The end of this period is generally said to coincide with the loss of the French provinces to See also:

Philip Augustus, but literary and See also:

POLITICAL

political history do not correspond quite so precisely, and the end of the first period would be more accurately denoted by the See also:

APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the history of William the See also:

MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

Marshal in 1225 (published for the Societe de l'histoire de France, by See also:

Paul See also:

Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901). It owes its brilliancy largely to the See also:

PROTECTION

protection accorded by Henry II. of England to the men of letters of his day. " He could speak French and Latin well, and is said to have known something of every tongue between `the See also:

Bay of See also:

Biscay and the Jordan.' He was probably the most highly educated See also:

SOVEREIGN

sovereign of his day, and amid all his busy active life he never lost his See also:

INTEREST

interest in literature and intellectual discussion; his hands were never empty, they always had either a See also:

BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow or a book " (See also:

DIET

Diet. of Nat.

Biog.). See also:

WACE, HENRY (1836– )

Wace and See also:

BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD (1834—1901)

Benoit de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his bidding, and it was in his reign that See also:

MARIE

Marie de France composed her poems. An event with which he was closely connected, viz. the See also:

MURDER

murder of Thomas See also:

BECKET, THOMAS (c. 1118—1170)

Becket, gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of which are purely Anglo-Norman. In his See also:

time appeared the See also:

WORKS

works of Beroul and Thomas respectively, as well as some of the most celebrated of the Anglo-Norman See also:

romans d'aventure. It is important to keep this fact in mind when studying the, different works which Anglo-Norman literature has See also:

LEFT

left us. We will examine these works briefly, grouping them into narrative, didactic, hagiographic, lyric, satiric and dramatic literature. Narrative Literature: (a) Epic and See also:

ROMANCE

Romance.—The French epic came over to England at an early date. We know that the Chanson de See also:

Roland was sung at the See also:

BATTLE

battle of See also:

Hastings, and we possess Anglo-Norman See also:

MSS. of a few chansons de geste. The Pelerinage de See also:

Charlemagne (Koschwitz, Altfranzosische Bibliothek, 1883) was, for instance, only preserved in an Anglo-Norman See also:

MANUSCRIPT

manuscript of the British Museum (now lost), although the author was certainly a Parisian. The See also:

OLDEST

oldest manuscript of the Chanson de Roland that we possess is also a manuscript written in England, and amongst the others of less importance we may mention La Chancun de Willame, the MS. of which has (See also:

JUNE

June 1903) been published in facsimile at See also:

CHISWICK

Chiswick (cf. Paul Meyer, Romania, xxxii. 597-618).

Although the See also:

DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out)

diffusion of epic See also:

POETRY

poetry in England did not actually inspire any new chansons de geste, it See also:

DEVELOPED

developed the See also:

TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste for this class of literature, and the epic See also:

style in which the tales of See also:

Horn, of Bovon de See also:

Hampton, of See also:

GUY, THOMAS (1644–1724)

Guy of See also:

Warwick (still unpublished), of Waldef (still unpublished), and of See also:

Fulk Fitz Warine are treated, is certainly partly due to this circumstance. Although the last of these works has come down to us only in a prose version, it contains unmistakable signs of a previous poetic See also:

FORM (Lat. forma)

form, and what we possess is really only a rendering into prose similar to the transformations undergone by many of the chansons de geste (cf. L. Brandin, Introduction to Fulk Fitz Warine, London, 1904). The interinfluence of French and English literature can be studied in the See also:

Breton romances and the romans d'aventure even better than in the epic poetry of the period. The See also:

Lay of See also:

ORPHEUS

Orpheus is known to us only through an English See also:

IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation; the Lai du See also:

cor was composed by See also:

Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of the 12th century (Wulff, See also:

Lund, 1888). The lais of Marie de France were written in England, and the greater number of the romances composing the matiere de Bretagne seem to have passed from England to France through the See also:

MEDIUM

medium of Anglo-Norman. The legends of See also:

Merlin and See also:

Arthur, collected in the Historia Regum Britanniae by See also:

Geoffrey of See also:

Monmouth (t 1154), passed into French literature, bearing the See also:

CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character which the See also:

bishop of St See also:

ASAPH

Asaph had stamped upon them. Chretien de Troye's See also:

Perceval (c. 1175) is doubtless based on an Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de See also:

BORON (symbol B, atomic weight I I)

Boron (c. 1215) took the subject of his Merlin (published by G.

See also:

Paris and J. See also:

ULRICH

Ulrich, 1886, 2 vols., Societe des Anciens Textes) from Geoffrey of Monmouth. Finally, the most celebrated love-See also:

LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend of the See also:

MIDDLE

middle ages, and one of the most beautiful inventions of See also:

WORLD

world-literature, the See also:

story of See also:

Tristan and Iseult, tempted two authors, Beroul and Thomas, the first of whom is probably, and the second certainly, Anglo-Norman (see ARTIIURIAN LEGEND; GRATL, THE See also:

HOLY

HoLY; TRISTAN). One Folic Tristan was composed in England in the last years of the lath century. (For all these questions see See also:

Soc. des Anc. Textes, 1bluret's ed. 1903; Bedier's ed. 1902-1905). Less fascinating than the story of Tristan and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the two romans d'aventure of See also:

Hugh of See also:

Rutland, Ipomedon (published by Kolbing and Koschwitz, See also:

BRESLAU (Polish Wraclaw)

Breslau, 1889) and See also:

PROTESILAUS

Protesilaus (still unpublished) written about 1185. The first relates the adventures of a See also:

knight who married the See also:

young duchess of See also:

CALABRIA

Calabria, niece of King See also:

MELEAGER (Gk. M€X aypos)

Meleager of See also:

SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, but was loved by See also:

MEDEA (Gr. Mi/Seta)

Medea, the king's wife. The second poem is the sequel to Ipomedon, and deals with the See also:

WARS

wars and subsequent reconciliation between Ipomedon's sons, Daunus, the See also:

elder, See also:

lord of See also:

APULIA (sometimes APPULIa in manuscripts but never in inscriptions)

Apulia, and Protesilaus, the younger, lord of Calabria. Protesilaus defeats Daunus, who had expelled him from Calabria.

He saves his See also:

BROTHER

brother's life, is reinvested with the dukedom of Calabria, and, after the See also:

DEATH

death of Daunus, succeeds to Apulia. He subsequently marries Medea, King Meleager's widow, who had helped him to seize Apulia, having transferred her See also:

AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection for Ipomedon to his younger son (cf. • Ward, See also:

Cat. of. Rom., i. 728). To these two romances by an Anglo-Norman author, Amadas et Idoine, of which we only possess a See also:

CONTINENTAL

continental version, is to be added. Gaston Paris has proved indeed that the See also:

ORIGINAL

original was composed in England in the 12th century (An English See also:

MISCELLANY

Miscellany presented to Dr See also:

FURNIVALL, FREDERICK JAMES (1825-1910)

Furnivall in See also:

HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

Honour of his Seventy-fifth Birthday, See also:

Oxford, 1901, 386-394). The Anglo-Norman poem on the Life of See also:

Richard Coeur de See also:

Lion is lost, and an English version only has been pre-served. About 1250 Eustace of See also:

Kent introduced into England the See also:

ROMAN

roman d'See also:

ALEXANDRE, NOEL (NATALIS ALEXANDER) (1639-1724)

Alexandre in his Roman de toute chevalerie, many passages of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English poems on See also:

Alexander, namely, King Alisaunder (P. Meyer, Alexandre le grand, Paris, 1886, ii. 273, and See also:

Weber, Metrical Romances, Edinburgh). (b) Fableaux, Fables and Religious Tales.—In spite of the incontestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we have only some See also:

HALF

half-dozen fableaux written in England, viz.

Le See also:

chevalier a la corbeille, Le chevalier qui faisait parler See also:

les muets, Le chevalier, sa See also:

dame et un clerc, Les trois dames, La gageure, Le pretre d'See also:

ALISON, ARCHIBALD (1757-1839)

Alison, La bourgeoise d'See also:

Orleans (Bedier, Les Fabliaux, 1895). As to fables, one of the most popular collections in the middle ages was that written by Marie de France, which she claimed to have translated from King See also:

ALFRED

Alfred. In the Conies moralises, written by See also:

NICOLE, PIERRE (1625–1695)

Nicole Bozon shortly before 1320 (See also:

Sac. Anc. Textes, 1889), a few fables See also:

bear a strong resemblance to those of Marie de France. The religious tales deal mostly with the See also:

Mary Legends, and have been handed down to us in three collections: (i.) The Adgar's collection. Most of these were translated from William of See also:

Malmesbury (t,143?) by Adgar in the 12th century (" Adgar's Marien-Legenden," Altfr. Biblioth. ix.; J. A. See also:

Herbert, Rom. xxxii. 394). (ii.) The collection of Everard of Gateley, a See also:

monk of St See also:

Edmund at See also:

Bury, who wrote c.

1250 three Mary Legends (Rom.See also:

XXIX

Xxix. 27). (iii.) An See also:

ANONYMOUS

anonymous collection of sixty Mary Legends composed c. 1250 (Brit. Museum Old See also:

ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790)

Roy. 20 B, xiv.), some of which have been published in Suchier's Bibliotheca Normannica; in the Altf. Bibl. See also Mussafia, " Studien zu den mittelalterlichen Marien-legenden " in Sitzungsb. der Wien. Akademie (t. cxiii., cxv., cxix., cxxiii., cxxix.). Another set of religious and moralizing tales is to be found in Chardri's Set dormans and Josaphat, c. 1216 (See also:

Koch, Altfr. Bibl., 188o; G.

Paris, Fames et legendes du moyen dge). (c) History.—Of far greater importance, however, are the works which constitute Anglo-Norman historiography. The first Anglo-Norman historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who wrote his Estorie des Angles (between 1147 and 1151) for Dame See also:

Constance, wife of Robert Fitz-See also:

GISLEBERT (or GILBERT) OF MONS (c. 1150-1225)

Gislebert (The Anglo-Norman Metrical See also:

CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Chronicle, Hardy and Martin, i. ii., London, i888). This history comprised a first See also:

PART

part (now lost), which was merely a See also:

TRANSLATION

translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth's HistoriaregumBritanniae, preceded by a history of the Trojan War, and a second part which carries us as far as the death of William See also:

Rufus. For this second part he has consulted See also:

HISTORICAL

historical documents, but he stops at the year ro87, just when he has reached the period about which he might have been able to give us some first-See also:

hand information. Similarly, Wace in his Roman de Rou et des ducs de Normandie (ed. Andresen, See also:

HEILBRONN

Heilbronn, 1877-1879, 2 vols.), written 1160-1174, stops at the battle of Tinchebray in 1107 just before the period for which he would have been so useful. His See also:

BRUT, BRUTE

Brut or Geste des Bretons (Le Roux de Lincy, 1836-1838, 2 vols.), written in 1155, is merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth. " Wace," says Gaston Paris, speaking of the Roman de Rou, " traduit en les abregeant des historiens latins que nous posse-dons; mais 9a et la it ajoute soit des contes populaires, See also:

PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par exemple sur Richard Ie", sur Robert Ie", soit des particularites qu'il savait par tradition (sur ce meme Robert le magnifique, sur 1'expedition de See also:

Guillaume, &c.) et qui donnent a son eeuvre un See also:

REEL (O.E. hreol, glossed by the Med. Lat. alibrum in .lelfric's Glossary, c. 1o5o; the word is of unknown origin; it does not appear in cognate languages, and Celtic forms such as Gaelic ruidhil are from English)

reel interet historique. Sa langue est excellente; son style clair, serre, See also:

SIMPLE

simple, d'ordinaire assez monotone, See also:

VOUS

vous See also:

PLAIT (through O. Fr. pleit, from Lat. plicitum, folded, plicare, to fold)

plait par sa saveur archaique et quelquefois par une certaine See also:

grace et une certaine malice." The History of the See also:

Dukes of See also:

NORMANDY

Normandy by Benoit de, Sainte-More is based on the work of Wace. It was composed at the See also:

REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request of Henry II. about 1170, and takes us as far as the year 1135 (ed. by Francisque See also:

Michel, 1836-1844, Collection de documents inedits, 3 vols.)'. The 43,000 lines which it contains are of but little interest to the historian; they are too evidently the work of a romancier See also:

COURTOIS, JACQUES (1621–1676)

courtois, who takes See also:

PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure in recounting love-adventures such as those he has described in his romance of See also:

Troy.

Other works, however, give us more trustworthy information, for example, the anonymous poem on Henry II.'s See also:

CONQUEST

Conquest of Ireland in 1172 (ed. Francisque Michel, London, 1837) , which, together with the Expugnatio hibernica of See also:

GIRAUD, GIOVANNI, COUNT (1776-1834)

Giraud de Barri, constitutes our See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief authority on this subject. The Conquest of Ireland was republished in 1892 by Goddard Henry Orpen, under the See also:

TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of The See also:

SONG

Song of Dermot and the Earl (Oxford, See also:

Clarendon See also:

PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

Press). Similarly, Jourdain Fantosme, who was in the north of England in 1174, wrote an account of the wars between Henry II., his sons, William the Lion of Scotland and See also:

Louis VII., in 1173 and 1174 (Chronicle of the reigns of See also:

Stephen . III., ed. by See also:

Joseph See also:

Stevenson and Fr. Michel, London, 1886, pp. 202-307). Not one of these histories, however, is to be compared in value with The History of William the Marshal, See also:

COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count of Striguil and See also:

Pembroke, See also:

REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent of England from 1216-1219, which was found and subsequently edited by Paul Meyer (Societe de l'histoire de France, 3 vols., 1891-1901). This masterpiece of historiography was composed in 1225 or 1226 by a professional poet of See also:

TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent at the request of William, son of the marshal. It was compiled from the notes of the marshal's See also:

SQUIRE

squire, John d'Early (f 1230 or 1231), who shared all the vicissitudes of his See also:

MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master's life and was one of the executors of his will. This work is of great value for the history of the period 1186-1219, as the information furnished by John d'Early is either See also:

PERSONAL

personal or obtained at first hand. In the part which deals with the period before 1186, it is true, there are various mistakes, due to the author's See also:

IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of contemporary history, but these slight blemishes are amply atoned for by the literary value of the work.

The style is concise, the anecdotes are well told, the descriptions See also:

SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short and picturesque; the whole constitutes one of the most 11. 2living pictures of See also:

MEDIEVAL

medieval society. Very See also:

PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale by the See also:

side of this work appear the Chronique of See also:

Peter of See also:

LANGTOFT, PETER (d. c. 1307)

Langtoft, written between 1311 and 1320, and mainly of interest for the period 1294-1307 (ed. by T. See also:

Wright, London, 1866-1868); the Chronique of See also:

Nicholas Trevet (1258?-1328?), dedicated to Princess Mary, daughter of See also:

EDWARD

Edward I. (Duffus Hardy, Descr. Catal. III., 349-350); the Scala Chronica compiled by Thomas See also:

Gray of Heaton (t c. 1369), which carries us to the year 1362-1363 (ed. by J. Stevenson, See also:

Maitland See also:

CLUB (connected with " clump ")

Club, Edinburgh, 1836); the See also:

Black See also:

Prince, a poem by the poet See also:

Chandos, composed about 1386, and relating the life of the Black Prince from 1346-1376 (re-edited by Francisque Michel, London and Paris, 1883) ; and, lastly, the different versions of the Brutes, the form and historical import.. ance of which have been indicated by Paul Meyer (Bulletin de la Societe des Anciens Textes, 1878, pp. 104-145), and by F. W. D.

See also:

BRIE (Briegus saltus, from Celtic briek, clay)

Brie (Geschichte and Quellen der mittelenglischen Prosachronik, The See also:

BRUTE, SIMON WILLIAM GABRIEL (1779–1839)

Brute of England or The See also:

CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

Chronicles of England, See also:

Marburg, 1905). Finally we may mention, as See also:

ancient history, the translation of See also:

EUTROPIUS

Eutropius and Dares, by Geoffrey of See also:

WATERFORD

Waterford (13th century), who gave also the See also:

SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

Secret des Secrets, a translation from a work wrongly attributed to See also:

Aristotle, which belongs to the next See also:

DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division (Rom. See also:

XXIII

xxiii. 314). Didactic Literature.—This is the most considerable, if not the most interesting, See also:

BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of Anglo-Norman literature: it comprises a large number of works written chiefly with the See also:

OBJECT

object of giving both religious and profane instruction to Anglo-Norman lords and ladies. The following See also:

list gives the most important productions arranged in See also:

CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological See also:

order: Philippe de Thaun, Comput, c. 1119 (edited by E. Mall, See also:

STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Strassburg, 1873), poem on the See also:

CALENDAR

calendar; Bestiaire, c. 1130 (ed. by E. Walberg, Paris, woo; cf. G. Paris, Rom. xxxi. 175); Lois de Guillaume le Conquerant (redaction between 1150 and 1170, ed. by J.

E. Matzke, Paris, 1899); Oxford Psalter, c. 1150 (Fr. Michel, Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua gallica, Oxford, 186o); See also:

Cambridge Psalter, c. 116o (Fr. Michel, Le Livre des Psaumes, Paris, 1877); London Psalter, same as Oxford Psalter (cf. Beyer, Zt. f. See also:

root. Phil. xi. 513-534; xii. 1-56); Disticha Catonis, translated by Everard de Kirkham and See also:

ELIE

Elie deWinchester (Stengel, Ausg. u. Abhandlungen) ; Le Roman de See also:

FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune, See also:

SUMMARY

summary of See also:

BOETIUS (or BoETxlus), ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS (c. A.D. 480–524)

Boetius' De See also:

CONSOLATION (Fr. consolation, Lat. consolatio, from consolari, to assuage, comfort, console)

consolation philosophiae, by See also:

Simon de Fresne (His'. lit. See also:

XXVIII

xxviii. 408); Quatre livres des rois, translated into French in the 12th century, and imitated in England soon after (P.

See also:

SCHLOSSER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1776—1861)

Schlosser, Die Lautverhdltnisse der' quatre livres des rois, See also:

BONN

Bonn, 1886; Romania, xvii. 124); Donnei des Amain, the conversation of two lovers, overheard and carefully noted by the poet, of a purely didactic character, in which are included three interesting pieces, the first being an See also:

EPISODE

episode of the story of Tristram, the second a See also:

FABLE (Fr. fable, Lat. fabula)

fable, L'homme et le See also:

SERPENT (Lat. serpens, creeping, from serpere; cf. "reptile " from repere, Gr.4 ml-eta)

serpent, the third a See also:

TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale, L'homme et l'oiseau, which is the basis of the celebrated Lai de l'oiselet (Rom. See also:

xxv. 497); Livre des Sibiles (116o); Enseignemenls Trebor, by Robert de Ho (= Hoo, Kent, on the left See also:

BANK

bank of the See also:

MEDWAY

Medway) [edited by Mary See also:

VANCE, ZEBULON BAIRD (1830-1894)

Vance Young, Paris; See also:

PICARD, LOUIS JOSEPH ERNEST (1821-1877)

Picard, 161; cf. G. Paris, See also:

Ram. xxxii. 141]; Lapidaire de Cambridge (See also:

PANNIER (Fr. panier, Lat. panarium, a basket for carrying bread, panis)

Pannier, Les Lapidaires See also:

FRANCAIS, ANTOINE, COUNT (1756-1836)

francais); See also:

Frere Angier de Ste. Frideswide, Dialogues, 29th of See also:

NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1212 (Rom. xii. 145-208, and xxix.; M. K. See also:

Pope, Etude sur la langue de Frere Angier, Paris, 1903); Li dialoge See also:

GREGOIRE, HENRI (1750—1831)

Gregoire le See also:

page, ed. by Foerster, 1876; See also:

PETIT, SIR DINSHAW MANECKJI, BART

Petit Piet, by Chardri, c. 1216 (Koch, Altfr Bibliothek, i., and Mussafia, Z. f. r.P. iii. 591); Petite philosophie, c.

1225 (Rom. xv. 356; xxix. 72); Histoire de Marie et de Jesus (Rom. xvi. 248-262); Poeme suf l'Ancien Testament (Not. et Extr. xxxiv. 1, 21o; Soc. See also:

Ant. Textes, 1889, 73-74) ; Le Corset and Le Miroir, by Robert de Gretham (Rom. vii. 345; xv. 296); Lumiere as Lais, by See also:

PIERRE

Pierre de See also:

PECKHAM, JOHN (d. 1292)

Peckham, c. 1250 (Rom. xv. 287); an Anglo-Norman redaction of See also:

IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

Image du monde, c. 1250 (Rom. xxi.

481); two Anglo-Norman versions of Quatre scours (Justice, Truth, See also:

Peace, See also:

Mercy), 13th century (ed. by Fr. Michel, Psautier d'Oxford, pp. 364-368, Bulletin Soc. Anc. Textes, 1886, 57, Romania, xv. 352); another Comput by Raiff de Lenham, 1256 (P. Meyer, Archives des See also:

MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions, 2nd series iv. 154 and 16o-164; Rom. xv. 285); Le chastel d'amors, by Robert See also:

GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (c. 1175—1253)

Grosseteste or See also:

GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY (1844–1896)

Greathead, bishop of IT See also:

Lincoln (See also:

t12 J3) [ed. by See also:

Cooke, Camino. Anglo-Normannica, 1852, See also:

CAXTON, WILLIAM (c. 1422-1491)

Caxton Society]; Poeme sur l'amour de Dieu et sur la haine du Oche, 13th century, second part (Rom. xxix. 5); Le mariage des neuf lilies du diable (Rom. xxix. 54); Ditie d'Urbain, attributed without any See also:

FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation to Henry I.

(P. Meyer, Bulletin Soc. Anc. Textes, 188o, p. 93 and Romania xxxii, 68); See also:

DIALOGUE

Dialogue de l'eveque See also:

SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

Saint See also:

JULIEN, STANISLAS (1797?-1873)

Julien et son See also:

DISCIPLE

disciple (Rom. xxix. 21) ; Poeme sur l'See also:

ANTICHRIST (avrixpu ros)

antichrist et le jugement dernier, by See also:

HENRI

Henri d'Arci (Rom. xxix. 78; Not. et. Extr. 35, :. 137). Wilham de See also:

WADDINGTON, WILLIAM HENRY (1826–1894)

Waddington produced at the end of the 13th century his See also:

Manuel des piches, which was adapted in England by Robert of Brunne in his Handlying Sinne (1303) [Hist. lit. xxviii. 179-207; Rom. xxix.

5, 47-53]; see Furnivall,Robert of Brunne'sHandlying Synne (Roxb.Club,1862) ; in the 14th century we find Nicole Bozon's Conies moralises (see above); Traite de naturesse (Rom. xiii. 508); Sermons in See also:

VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse (P. Meyer, op. cit. xlv.); Proverbes de bon enseignemeni (op. cit. xlvi.). We have also a few handbooks on the teaching of French. See also:

Gautier de Biblesworth wrote such a See also:

TREATISE

treatise a Madame Dyonise de Mountechensi pur aprise de langage (Wright, -4 See also:

VOLUME

Volume of Vocabularies; P. Meyer, Rec. d'anc. texies, p. 36o and Romania xxxii, 22); Orthographia gallica (Sturzinger, Alifr. Bibl. 1884); La maniere de language, written in 1396 (P. Meyer, Rev. crit. d'hist. et de lilt. nos. compl. de 1870); Un petit livre pour enseigner les enfants de leur entreparler comun frangois, c. 1399 (Stengel, Z. fur zz. f. Spr. u.

Litt. i. 11). The important Mirour de l'omme, by John See also:

Gower, contains about 30,000 lines written in very good French at the end of the 14th century (See also:

MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON (1800-1859)

Macaulay, The Complete Works of John Gower, i., Oxford, 1899). Hagiography.—Among the numerous lives of See also:

SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints written in Anglo-Norman the most important ones are the following, the list of which is given in chronological order:—Voyage de Saint See also:

BRANDON

Brandon (or Brandain), written in 1121, by an ecclesiastic for See also:

Queen Aelis of See also:

LOUVAIN (Flem. Leuven)

Louvain (Rom. St. i. 553-588; Z. f. r. P. ii. 438-459; Rom. xviii. 203. C. Wahlund, Die altfr. Prosaiibersetz. von See also:

BRENDAN, BRANDON

Brendan's Meerfahrt, See also:

UPSALA, or UPPSALA

Upsala, 1901); life of St See also:

Catherine by Clemence of See also:

BARKING

Barking (Rom. xiii.

400, Jarnik, 1894); life of St See also:

GILES (GIL, GILLES), ST

Giles, c. 1170, by Guillaume de Berneville (Soc. Anc. Textes fr., 1881; Rom. xi. and xxiii. 94) ; life of St Nicholas, life of Our See also:

LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

Lady, by Wace (See also:

DELIUS, NIKOLAUS (1813–1888)

Delius, 185o; Stengel, See also:

Cod. See also:

Digby, 66); Uhlemann, See also:

GRAM

Gram. Krit. Studien zu 1Vace's Conception and See also:

Nicolas, 1878; life of St See also:

George by Simon de Fresne (Rom. x. 319; J. E. Matzke, Public. of the Mod. See also:

Lang.

See also:

Ass. of Amer. xvii. 1902; Rom. xxxiv. 148); Expurgatoire de Ste. Patrice, by Marie de France (See also:

Jenkins, 1894; Eckleben, Aelteste Schilderung vom Fegefeuer d. H. Patricius, 1851; Ph. de Felice, 1906); La See also:

vie de St Edmund le Rei, by See also:

Denis Pyramus, end of 12th century (Memorials of St Edmund's See also:

Abbey, edited by T. See also:

Arnold, ii. 1892; Rom. xxii. 170) ; Henri d'Arci's life of St See also:

THAIS

Thais, poem on the Antichrist, Visio S. See also:

PAULI, REINHOLD (1823-1882)

Pauli (P. Meyer, Not. et Extr. See also:

XXXV

xxxv. 137-158); life of St See also:

Gregory the Great by Frere Angier, 3oth of See also:

APRIL

April 1214 (Rom. viii.

509-J44; ix. 176; xviii. 201); life of St Modwenna, between 1225 and 1250 (Suchier, Die dem Maithdus Paris zugeschriebene Vie de St Auban, 1873, pp. 54-58); Fragments of a life of St Thomas Becket, c. 1230 (P. Meyer, Soc. Anc. Text. fr., 1885); and another life of the same by Benoit of St See also:

ALBAN, SAINT

Alban, 13th century (Michel, Chron. des dues de Normandie; Hist. Lit. xxiii. 383); a life of Edward the See also:

CONFESSOR

Confessor, written before 1245 (Luard, Lives of Edward the Confessor, 1858; Hist. Lit. See also:

XXVII

xxvii. 1), by an anonymous monk of See also:

Westminster; life of St Auban, c.

1250 (Suchier, op. cit.; Uhlemann, " Uber die vie de St Auban in Bezug auf Quelle," &c. Rom. St. iv. J43-626; ed. by See also:

Atkinson, 1876). The See also:

VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

Vision of Tnudgal, an Anglo-Norman fragment, is preserved in MS. 312, Trinity See also:

COLLEGE (Collegium)

College, See also:

DUBLIN

Dublin; the MS. is of the 14th century; the author seems to belong to the 13th (La vision de Tondale, ed. by See also:

FRIEDEL, CHARLES (1832-1899)

Friedel and Kuno Meyer, 1906). In this See also:

CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category we may add the life of Hugh of Lincoln, 13th century (Hist. Lit. xxiii. 436; See also:

Child, The English and Scottish Popular See also:

BALLADS

Ballads, ,888, p. v; See also:

WOLTER, CHARLOTTE (1834-1897)

Wolter, Bibl. Anglo-Norzn. ii. 115). Other lives of saints were recognized to be Anglo-Norman by Paul Meyer when examining the MSS. of the Welbeck library (Rom. xxxii.

637 and Hist. Lit. xxxiii. 338-378). Lyric Poetry.—The only extant songs of any importance arethe seventy-one Ballads of Gower (Stengel, Gower's Minnesang, 1886). The remaining songs are mostly of a religious character. Most of them have been discovered and published by Paul Meyer (Bulletin de la Soc. Anc. Textes, 1889; Not. et Extr. xxxiv; Rom. xiii. 518, t. xiv. 370; XV. p. 254, &c.). Although so few have come down to us such songs must have been numerous at one time, owing to the See also:

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant intercourse between English, French and Provengals of all classes.

An interesting passage in Piers Plowman furnishes us with a See also:

PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of the extent to which these songs penetrated into England. We read of : . dykers and deluers that doth here dedes ille, And dryuen forth the longe day with ' Den, vous sane, Dame Emme! ' (See also:

PROLOGUE (from Gr. 7rpo, before, and Myer, a word)

Prologue, 223 f.) One of the finest productions of Anglo-Norman lyric poetry written in the end of the 13th century, is the Plainie d'amour (Vising, Goteborg, 1905; Romania xiii. 507, xv. 292 and xxix. 4), and we may mention, merely as literary curiosities, various works of a lyrical character written in two See also:

LANGUAGES

languages, Latin and French, or English and French, or even in three languages, Latin, English and French. In Early English Lyrics (Oxford, 1907) we have a poem in which a See also:

LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868)

lover sends to his See also:

MISTRESS

mistress a love-greeting composed in three languages, and his learned friend replies in the same style (De anzico ad amicam, Responcio, viii and ix). See also:

SATIRE (Lat. satira, satura; see below)

Satire.—The popularity enjoyed by the Roman de Renart and the Anglo-Norman version of the Riote du Monde (Z. f. See also:

REIN

rein. Phil. viii. 275-289) in England is proof enough that the French spirit of satire was keenly appreciated. The See also:

clergy and the See also:

FAIR

fair See also:

SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex presented the most attractive See also:

target for the shots of the satirists. However, an Englishman raised his See also:

VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice in favour of the ladies in a poem entitled La Bonte des dames (Meyer, Rom.

XV. 315-339), and Nicole Bozon, after having represented " See also:

PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

Pride " as a feminine being whom he supposes to be the daughter of See also:

Lucifer, and after having fiercely attacked the See also:

WOMEN

women of his day in the See also:

CHAR (Salvelinus)

Char d'Orgucil (Rom. xiii. 516), also composed a Bounte des femmes (P. Meyer, op. cit. 33) in which he covers them with praise, commending their See also:

COURTESY (O. Fr. curtesie, later courtoisie)

courtesy, their humility, their openness and the care with which they bring up their See also:

CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children. A few pieces of political satire show us French and English exchanging amenities on their mutual shortcomings. The Roman des See also:

FRANCOIS (1558-1614)

Francois, by See also:

ANDRE, JOHN (1751-178o)

Andre de See also:

Coutances,was written on the See also:

CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent, and cannot be quoted as Anglo-Norman although it was composed before 1204 (cf. Gaston Paris: Trois versions rimees de l'evangile de Nicodeme, Soc. Anc. Textes, 1885),it is a very spirited reply to Frenchauthors who had attacked the English. Dramatic Literature.—This must have had a considerable See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on the development of the sacred See also:

DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama in England, but none of the French plays acted in England in the 12th and 13th centuries has been preserved. See also:

Adam, which is generally considered to be an Anglo-Norman See also:

MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery of the 12th century, was probably written in France at the beginning of the 13th century (Romania xxxii.

637), and the so-called Anglo-Norman Resurrection belongs also to continental French. It is necessary to See also:

state that the earliest English moralities seem to have been imitations of the French ones. ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE. It is usual to speak of " the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle "; it would be more correct to say that there are four Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. It is true that these all grow out of a See also:

COMMON

common stock, that in some even of their later entries two or more of them use common materials; but the same may be said of several See also:

groups of medieval chronicles, which no one dreams of treating as single chronicles. Of this fourfold Chronicle there are seven MSS. in existence; C.C.C. Cant. 173 (A); See also:

COLT, SAMUEL (1814-1862)

Colt. Tib. A vi. (B); Cott. Tib.

B i. (C); Cott. Tib. B iv. (D); Bodl. See also:

Laud. Misc. 636 (E); Cott. See also:

DOMITIAN (Thus FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS)

Domitian A viii. (F); Cott. See also:

OTHO, MARCUS SALVIUS (32-69)

Otho B xi. (G).

Of these G is now a See also:

mere fragment, and it is known to have been a transcript of A. F is bilingual, the entries being given both in Saxon and Latin. It is interesting as a See also:

STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage in the transition from the See also:

VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular to the Latin chronicle; but it has little See also:

INDEPENDENT

independent value, being a mere See also:

epitome, made at See also:

Canterbury in the 'rth or 12th century, of a chronicle akin to E. B, as far as it goes (to ()77). is identical with C, both having been copied from a common original. but A, C, D, E have every right to be treated as independent chronicles. The relations between the four vary very greatly in different parts, and the neglect of this See also:

CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration has led to much See also:

ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error and confusion. The common stock, out of which all grow. extends to 892. The See also:

PRESENT

present writer See also:

SEES

sees no See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt that the See also:

IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of a See also:

NATIONAL

national, as opposed to earlier See also:

LOCAL

local chronicles, was inspired by Alfred, who may even have dictated, or at least revised, the entries' relating to his own See also:

CAMPAIGNS

campaigns; while for the earlier parts pre-existing materials, both oral and written, were utilized. Among the latter the chronological epitome appended to See also:

Bede's Ecclesiastical History may be specially mentioned. But even this common stock exists in two different recensions, in A, B, C, on the one hand, and D, E on the other. The See also:

main points of difference are that in D, E (I) a series of See also:

NORTHERN

northern See also:

ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals have been incorporated; (2) the Bede entries are taken, not from the brief epitome, but from the main See also:

BODY

body of the Eccl. Hist. The inference is that, shortly after the compiling of this Alfredian chronicle, a copy of it was sent to some northern monastery, probably See also:

Ripon, where it was See also:

EXPANDED

expanded in the way indicated.

Copies of this northernized Chronicle afterwards found their way to the south. The impulse given by Alfred was continued under Edward, and we have what may be called an See also:

OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official continuation of the history of the Danish wars, which, in B, C, D extends to 915, and in A to 924. After 915 B, C insert as a See also:

SEPARATE

separate document a short See also:

register of Mercian affairs during the same period (902-924), which might be called the acts of'Ethelflaed, the famous " Lady of the Mercians," while D has incorporated it, not very skilfully, with the official continuation. Neither of these documents exists in E. From g25 to 975 all the chronicles are very fragmentary; a few obits, three or four poems, among them the famous ballad on the battle of Brunanburh, make up the meagre tale of their common materials, which each has tried to supplement in its own way. A has inserted a number of See also:

Winchester entries, which prove that A is a Winchester book. And this local and scrappy character it retains to root, where it practically ends. At some subsequent time it was transferred bodily to Canterbury, where it received numerous interpolations in the earlier part, and a few later local entries which finally tail off into the Latin acts of See also:

LANFRANC (d. 1089)

Lanfranc. A may therefore be dismissed. C has added to the common stock one or two See also:

ABINGDON

Abingdon entries, with which See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place the history of C is closely connected; while D and E have a second See also:

GROUP

group of northern annals 901-966, E being how-ever much more fragmentary than D, omitting, or not having See also:

ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to, much both of the common and of the northern material which is found in D. From 983 to 1018 C, D and E are practically identical, and give a connected history of the Danish struggles under tEthelred II. This section was probably composed at Canterbury.

From 1018 the relations of C, D, E become too complicated to be expressed by any See also:

formula; sometimes all three agree together, sometimes all three are independent; in other places each pair in turn agree against the third. It may be noted that C is strongly See also:

ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-Godwinist, while E is equallypro-Godwinist, D occupying an intermediate position. C extends to Io66, where it ends abruptly, and probably mutilated. D ends at 1079 and is certainly mutilated. in its later history D is associated with some place in the See also:

DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese of See also:

Worcester, probably See also:

EVESHAM

Evesham. In its present form D is a comparatively See also:

LATE

late MS., none of it probably much earlier, and some of it later, than 'See also:

LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo. In the See also:

case of entries in the earlier part of the chronicles, which are See also:

PECULIAR

peculiar to D, we cannot exclude the possibility that they may be late interpolations. E is continued to 1154. In its present form it is unquestionably a See also:

PETERBOROUGH

Peterborough book. The earlier part is full of Peterborough interpolations, to which place many of the later entries also refer. But (apart from the interpolations) it is only the entries after 1121, where the first hand in the ILIS. ends, which were actually composed at Peterborough. The section 1023–1o67 certainly, and possibly also the section 1068-1121, was composed at St See also:

Augustine's, Canterbury; and the former is of extreme interest and value, the writer being in See also:

close contact with the events which he describes. The later parts of E show a great degeneration in language, and a querulous See also:

TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone due to the sufferings of the native See also:

POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population under the harsh Norman See also:

RULE

rule; " but our See also:

DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt to it is inestimable; and we can hardly measure what the loss to English history would have been, if it had not been written; or if, having been written, it had, like so many another English chronicle, been lost." ANGLO-SAXON LAW.

1. The body of legal rules and customs which obtained in England before the Norman conquest constitutes, with the Scandinavian laws, the most genuine expression of See also:

Teutonic legal thought. While the so-called "barbaric laws" (leges barbarorum) of the continent, not excepting those compiled in the territory now called See also:

Germany, were largely the product of Roman influence, the continuity of Roman life was almost completely broken in the See also:

ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island, and even the See also:

Church, the See also:

DIRECT

direct See also:

HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir of Roman tradition, did not carry on a continuous existence: Canterbury was not a see formed in a Roman See also:

province in the same sense as See also:

TOURS

Tours or See also:

Reims. One of the striking expressions of this Teutonism is presented by the language in which the Anglo-Saxon laws were written. They are uniformly worded in English, while continental laws, apart from the Scandinavian, are all in Latin. The English See also:

DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect in which the Anglo-Saxon laws have been handed down to us is in most case? a common speech derived from See also:

West Saxon—naturally enough as Wessex became the predominant English state, and the court of its kings the principal literary centre from which most of the compilers and See also:

SCRIBES

scribes derived their dialect and spelling. Traces of Kentish speech may be detected, however, in the Textus Ro fensis, the MS. of the Kentish laws, and Northumbrian dialectical peculiarities are also noticeable on some occasions, while Danish words occur only as technical terms. At the conquest, Latin takes the place of English in the compilations made to meet the demand for Anglo-Saxon law texts as still applied in practice. 2. It is easy to group the Anglo-Saxon laws according to the manner of their publication. They would fall into three divisions: (r) laws and collections of laws promulgated by public authority; (2) statements of See also:

CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom; (3) private compilations of legal rules and enactments. To the first division belong the laws of the Kentish kings, "Ethelberht, See also:

HLOTHHERE

Hlothhere and Eadric, Withraed; those of See also:

Ine of Wessex, of Alfred, Edward the Elder, 'Ethelstan,l Edmund, See also:

Edgar, 'See also:

ETHELRED

Ethelred and Canute; the treaty between Alfred and See also:

GUTHRUM (GoDRUM) (d. 89o)

Guthrum and the so-called treaty between Edward and Guthrum.

The second division is formed by the See also:

convention between the English and the Welsh Dunsaetas, the law of the Northumbrian priests, the customs of the North people, the fragments of local custumals entered in Domesday Book. The third division would consist of the collections of the so-called Pseudo-leges Canuti, the laws of Edward the Confessor, of Henry I., and the great compilation of the Quadripartitus, then of a number of short notices and extracts like the fragments on the "See also:

WEDDING

wedding of a wife," on oaths, on ordeals, on the king's peace, on rural customs (Rectitudines singularum personarum), the See also:

TREATISES

treatises on the See also:

reeve (gerefa) and on the See also:

JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge (dema), formulae of oaths, notions as to wergeld, &c. A See also:

FOURTH

fourth group might be made of the charters, as they are based on Old English private and public law and See also:

SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply us with most important materials in regard to it. Looking somewhat deeper at the See also:

SOURCES

sources from which Old English law was derived, we shall have to modify our See also:

CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification to some extent, as the See also:

EXTERNAL

external forms of publication, although important from the point of view of historical See also:

criticism, are not sufficient See also:

STANDARDS

standards as to the juridical character of the various kinds of material. Direct statements of law would fall under the following heads, from the point of view of their legal origins: i. customary rules followed by See also:

DIVERS

divers communities capable of formulating law; ii. enactments of authorities, especially of kings; iii. private arrangements made under recognized legal rules. The first would comprise, besides most of the statements of custom included in the second division according to the first classification, a great many of the rules entered in collections promulgated by kings; most of the paragraphs of IEthelberht's, Hlothhere's, and Eadric's and Ine's laws, are popular legal customs that have received the See also:

STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp of royal authority by their insertion in official codes. On the other hand, from Withraed's and Alfred's laws downwards, the See also:

ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of enactment by central authority becomes more and more prominent. The kings endeavour, with the help of See also:

SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular and clerical See also:

WITAN, or WITENAGEMOT (from O. Eng. wita, p1. witan, a wise man, and gemot, a meeting, from O. Eng. metan, to meet)

witan, to introduce new rules and to break the See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

long-See also:

STANDING

standing customs (e.g. the precepts about the keeping of holidays, the enactments of Edmund restricting private vengeance, and the solidarity of kindreds as to feuds, and the like). There are, however, no outward signs enabling us to distinguish conclusively between both categories of laws in the codes, nor is it possible to draw a See also:

LINE

line between permanent laws and personal ordinances of single sovereigns, as has been attempted in the case of Frankish legislation. 3. Even in the course of a general survey of the legal lore at our disposal, one cannot help being struck by peculiarities in the See also:

DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of legal subjects. Matters which seem to us of See also:

PRIMARY

primary importance and occupy a wide place in our law-books are almost entirely absent in Anglo-Saxon laws or relegated to the background.

While it is impossible to give here anything like a complete or exact survey of the See also:

field—a task rendered almost impossible by the arbitrary manner in which paragraphs are divided, by the difficulty of making Old English enactments See also:

fit into modern rubrics, and by the See also:

NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of counting several times certain paragraphs bearing on different subjects—a brief statistical See also:

ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the contents of royal codes and laws may be found instructive. We find roughly 419 paragraphs devoted to criminal law and i The Judicia civitatis Lundoniae are a gild See also:

STATUTE

statute confirmed by King "Ethelstan. See also:

PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure as against 91 concerned with questions of private law and See also:

CIVIL

civil procedure. Of the criminal law clauses, as many as 238 are taken up with tariffs of fines, while 8o treat of See also:

capital and See also:

CORPORAL

corporal See also:

PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment, See also:

OUTLAWRY

outlawry and See also:

CONFISCATION (from Lat. confiscare, to consign to the fiscus, or imperial treasury)

confiscation, and for include rules of procedure. On the private law side 18 clauses apply to rights of See also:

PROPERTY

property and See also:

possession, 13 to See also:

SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession and See also:

FAMILY

family law, 37 to contracts, including See also:

MARRIAGE

marriage when treated as an See also:

ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of See also:

sale; 18 See also:

TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch on civil procedure. A subject which attracted See also:

SPECIAL

special See also:

ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention was the law of status, and no less than 107 paragraphs contain disposition dictated by the wish to discriminate between the classes of society. Questions of public law and See also:

ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration are discussed in 217 clauses, while 197 concern the Church in one way or another, apart from purely ecclesiastical collections. In the public law division it is chiefly the power, interests and privileges of the king that are dealt with, in roughly 93 paragraphs, while local administration comes in for 39 and purely economic and fiscal matter for 13 clauses. See also:

POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

Police regulations are very much to the fore and occupy no less than 72 clauses of the royal legislation. As to church matters, the most prolific group is formed by general precepts based on religious and moral considerations, roughly 115, while secular privileges conferred on the Church hold about 62; and questions of organization some 20 clauses. The statistical contrasts are especially See also:

sharp and characteristic when we take into account the chronological sequence in the elaboration of laws. Practically the entire See also:

CODE (Lat. codex)

code of'Ethelberht, for instance, is a See also:

TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff of fines for crimes, and the same subject continues to occupy a great place in the laws of Hlothhere and Eadric, Ine and Alfred, whereas it appears only occasionally in the See also:

TREATIES

treaties with the Danes, the laws of Withraed, Edward the Elder, lEthelstan, Edgar, Edmund and "Ethelred.

It re-appears in some strength in the code of Canute, but the latter is chiefly a recapitulation of former enactments. The See also:

SYSTEM

system of " compositions " or fines, paid in many cases with the help of kinsmen, finds its natural place in the ancient, tribal period of English history and loses its vitality later on in consequence of the growth of central power and of the scattering of maegths. See also:

ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

Royalty and the Church, when they acquire the See also:

lead in social life, work out a new penal system based on outlawry, death penalties and corporal punishments, which make their first appearance in the legislation of Withraed and culminate in that of 'Ethelred and Canute. As regards status, the most elaborate enactments fall into the period preceding the Danish settlements. After the treaties with the Danes, the tendency is to simplify distinctions on the lines of an opposition between twelvehynd-men and twyhyndmen, paving the way towards the feudal distinction between the See also:

FREE

free and the unfree. In the arrangements of the See also:

COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth the clauses treating of royal privileges are more or less evenly distributed over all reigns, but the systematic development of police functions, especially in regard to responsibility for crimes, the catching of thieves, the suppression of lawlessness, is mainly the object of loth and 11th century legislation. The reign of 'Ethelred, which witnessed the greatest national humiliation and the greatest See also:

CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime in English history, is also marked by the most lavish expressions of religious feeling and the most frequent appeals to morality. This See also:

SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch would, of course, have to be modified in many ways if we attempted to treat the unofficial fragments of customary law in the same way as the paragraphs of royal codes, and even more so if we were able to tabulate the indirect See also:

EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence as to legal rules. But, imperfect as such See also:

STATISTICS

statistics may be, they give us at any See also:

RATE

rate some insight into the direction of governmental legislation. 4. The next question to be approached concerns the See also:

PEDIGREE

pedigree of Anglo-Saxon law and the latter's natural See also:

AFFINITIES

affinities. What is its position in the legal history of Germanic nations?

How far has it been influenced by non-Germanic elements, especially by Roman and See also:

CANON

Canon law? The oldest Anglo-Saxon codes, especially the Kentish and the West Saxon ones, disclose a close relationship to the barbaric laws of See also:

LOWER

Lower Germany—those of See also:

SAXONS

Saxons, See also:

FRISIANS (Lat. Frisii; in Med. Lat. Frisones, Frisiones, Fresones; in their own tongue Frsasa, FrPsen)

Frisians, Thuringians. We find a division of social ranks which reminds us of the threefold gradation of Lower Germany (edelings, frilings, lazzen—eorls, ceorls, laets), and not of the twofold Frankish one (ingenui Franci, Romani), nor of the minute differentiation of the Upper Germans and See also:

LOMBARDS, or LANGOBARDI

Lombards. In subsequent history there is a good deal of resemblance between the capitularies' legislation of Charlemagne and his successors on one hand, the acts of Alfred, Edward the Elder, IEthelstan and Edgar on the other, a resemblance called forth less by direct borrowing of Frankish institutions than by the similarity of political problems and See also:

CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition. Frankish law becomes a powerful modifying element in English legal history after the Conquest, when it was introduced wholesale in royal and in feudal courts. The Scandinavian invasions brought in many northern legal customs, especially in the districts thickly populated with Danes. The Domesday survey of See also:

LINCOLNSHIRE

Lincolnshire, See also:

NOTTINGHAMSHIRE, or NOTTS

Nottinghamshire, See also:

YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire, See also:

Norfolk, &c., shows remarkable deviations in local organization and justice (lagmen, sokes), and great peculiarities as to status (socmen, freemen), while from laws and a few charters we can perceive some influence on criminal law (nidingsvaerk), special usages as to fines (lahslit), the keeping of peace, See also:

ATTESTATION (Lat. adtestare, attestare, to bear witness, testis, a witness)

attestation and sureties of acts (faestermen), &c. But, on the whole, the introduction of Danish and Norse elements,apart from local cases, was more important owing to the conflicts and compromises it called forth and its social results, than on account of any distinct trail of Scandinavian views in English law. The Scandinavian newcomers coalesced easily and quickly with the native population. The direct influence of Roman law was not great during the Saxon period: we See also:

NOTICE

notice neither the transmission of important legal doctrines, chiefly through the medium of Visigothic codes, nor the continuous stream of Roman tradition in local usage. But indirectly Roman law did exert a by no means insignificant influence through the medium of the Church, which, for all its insular character, was still permeated with Roman ideas and forms of culture. The Old English " books " are derived in a roundabout way from Roman See also:

MODELS

models, and the tribal law of real property was deeply modified by the introduction of individualistic notions as to ownership, donations, See also:

WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891)

wills, rights of women, &c.

Yet in this respect also the Norman Conquest increased the See also:

STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store of Roman conceptions by breaking the national See also:

ISOLATION

isolation of the English Church and opening the way for closer intercourse with France and See also:

Italy. 5. It would be useless to See also:

ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to trace in a brief sketch the history of the legal principles embodied in the documents of Anglo-Saxon law. But it may be of some value to give an outline of a few particularly characteristic subjects. (a) The Anglo-Saxon legal system cannot be understood unless one realizes the fundamental opposition between folk-right and See also:

PRIVILEGE

privilege. Folk-right is the aggregate of rules, formulated or latent but susceptible of formulation, which can be appealed to as the expression of the juridical consciousness of the people at large or of the communities of which it is composed. It is tribal in its origin, and differentiated, not according to boundaries between states, but on national and provincial lines. There may be the folk-right of West and See also:

East Saxons, of East Angles, of Kentish men, Mercians, Northumbrians, Danes, Welshmen, and these main folk-right divisions remain even when tribal kingdoms disappear and the people is concentrated in one or two realms. The chief centres for the formulation and application of folk-right were in the loth and rsth centuries the See also:

SHIRE

shire-moots, while the witan of the See also:

REALM

realm generally placed themselves on the higher ground of State expediency, although occasionally using folk-right ideas. The older law of real property, of succession, of contracts, the customary tariffs of fines, were mainly regulated by folk-right; the See also:

REEVES, JOHN SIMS (1818-1900)

reeves employed by the king and great men were supposed to take care of local and rural affairs according to folk-right. The law had to be declared and applied by the people itself in its communities, while the spokesmen of the people were neither democratic majorities nor individual experts, but a few leading men—the twelve eldest thanes or some similar See also:

QUORUM (Lat. for " of whom ")

quorum. Folk-right could, however, be broken or modified by special law or special See also:

grant, and the See also:

FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain of such privileges was the royal power.

Alterations and exceptions were, as a matter of37 fact, suggested by the interested parties themselves, and chiefly by the Church. Thus a privileged land-See also:

TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure was createdbookland; the rules as to the succession of kinsmen were set at nought by concession of testamentary power and confirmations of grants and wills; special exemptions from the See also:

jurisdiction of the hundreds and special privileges as to levying fines were conferred. In See also:

PROCESS

process of time the rights originating in royal grants of privilege overbalanced, as it were, folk-right in many respects, and became themselves the starting-point of a new legal system—the feudal one. (b) Another feature of vital importance in the history of Anglo-Saxon law is its tendency towards the preservation of peace. Society is constantly struggling to ensure the main condition of its existence—peace. Already in thelberht's legislation we find characteristic fines inflicted for See also:

BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of the peace of householders of different ranks—the ceorl, the eorl, and the king himself appearing as the most exalted among them. Peace is considered not so much a state of See also:

EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance)

equilibrium and friendly relations between parties, but rather as the rule of a third within a certain region—a See also:

house, an See also:

ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate, a kingdom. This leads on one side to the recognition of private authorities —the See also:

FATHER

father's in his family, the master's as to servants, the lord's as to his personal or territorial dependents. On the other hand, the tendency to maintain peace naturally takes its course towards the strongest ruler, the king, and we See also:

witness in Anglo-Saxon law the See also:

GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

EVOLUTION

evolution of more and more stringent and complete rules in respect of the king's peace and its infringements. (c) The more ancient documents of Anglo-Saxon law show us the individual not merely as the subject and See also:

CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen of a certain commonwealth, but also as a member of some group, all the See also:

FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows of which are closely allied in claims and responsibilities. The most elementary of these groups is the maegth, the association of agnatic and cognatic relations. Personal protection and revenge, oaths, marriage, wardship, succession, supervision over See also:

settlement, and good behaviour, are regulated by the law of kinship.

A See also:

man's actions are considered not as exertions of his individual will, but as acts of the kindred, and all the fellows of the maegth are held responsible for them. What began as a natural See also:

ALLIANCE

alliance was used later as a means of enforcing responsibility and keeping lawless individuals in order. When the association of kinsmen failed, the voluntary associations—See also:

GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds —appeared as substitutes. The gild See also:

BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers associated in mutual See also:

defence and support, and they had to See also:

SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the See also:

PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of fines. The township and the hundred came also in for certain forms of collective responsibility, because they presented groups of people associated in their economic and legal interests. (d) In course of time the natural associations get loosened and intermixed, and this calls forth the elaborate police legislation of the later Anglo-Saxon kings. Regulations are issued about the sale of See also:

CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle in the presence of witnesses. Enactments about the pursuit of thieves, and the calling in of warrantors to justify sales of chattels, are other expressions of the difficulties attending peaceful intercourse. Personal See also:

SURETY

surety appears as a See also:

COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up)

complement of and substitute for collective responsibility. The hlaford and his hiredmen are an institution not only of private patronage, but also of police supervision for the See also:

SAKE

sake of laying hands on malefactors and suspected persons. The landrica assumes the same part in a territorial district. Ultimately the laws of the See also:

ROTH, JUSTUS LUDWIG ADOLF (1818-1892)

roth and 11th centuries show the beginnings of the See also:

FRANKPLEDGE (Lat. francum plegium)

frankpledge associations, which came to act so important a part in the local police and administration of the feudal See also:

AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age.

The points mentioned are not many, but, apart from their See also:

INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus, inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi, to follow)

intrinsic importance in any system of law, they are, as it were, made prominent by the documents themselves, as they are constantly referred to in the latter. and the fulness of its glossary. B. See also:

Thorpe, Ancient Laws and Institutes of England (184o) is not very trustworthy. Domesday Book, i. ii. (Rec. See also:

COMM

Comm.); Codex Diplomaticus Aevi Saxonici, i.-vi. ed. J. M. See also:

Kemble (1839-1848) ; Cartularium Saxonicum (up to 940), ed. W. de Gray See also:

Birch (1885-1893); J. See also:

Earle, Land Charters (Oxford, [888) ; Thorpe, Diplomatarium Anglicanuna; Facsimiles of Ancient Charters, edited by the See also:

ORDNANCE (a syncopated form of " ordinance " or " ordonnance," so spelt in this sense since the 17th century)

Ordnance Survey and by the British Museum; Haddan and See also:

Stubbs, See also:

COUNCILS

Councils of Great Britain, i.-iii.

(Oxford, 1869-1878). Modern works.—Konrad See also:

MAURER, GEORG LUDWIG VON (1790-1872)

Maurer, Uber Angelsachsische Rechtsverhaltnisse, Kritische Ueberschau (Munich, 1853 ff.), still the best account of the history of Anglo-Saxon law; Essays on Anglo-Saxon Law, by H. See also:

Adams, H. C. See also:

Lodge, J. L. Laughlin and E. Young (1876); J. M. Kemble, Saxons in England; F. See also:

Palgrave, History of the English Commonwealth; Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, i.; See also:

POLLOCK

Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, i.; H. See also:

BRUNNER, HENRY (184o– )

Brunner, Zur Rechtsgeschichte der romisch-germanischen Urkunde (188o) ; Sir F.

Pollock, The King's Peace (Oxford Lectures); F. Seebohm; The English See also:

VILLAGE

Village Community; Ibid. Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law; Marquardsen, Haft and Burgschaft See also:

IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Angelsachsischen Recht; Jastrow, Uber die Strafrechtliche Stellung der Sklaven," Gierke's Untersuchungen, i.; Steenstrup, Normannerne, iv.; F. W. Maitland, Domesday and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897) ; H.M. See also:

CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN (18o0-1890)

Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (1905); P. See also:

VINOGRADOFF, PAUL (1854- )

Vinogradoff, " Foie-land " in the English Historical See also:

REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, 1893; " Romanistische Einflusse im Angelsachsischen Recht: Das Buchland " in the Melanges Fitting, 1907; " The See also:

TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

Transfer of Land in Old English Law " in the Harvard Law Review, 1907. (P. VI.) ANGLO-SAXONS. The See also:

TERM

term " Anglo-Saxon " is commonly applied to that period of English history, language and literature which preceded the Norman Conquest. It goes back to the time of King Alfred, who seems to have frequently used the title rex :Inglorum Saxonum or rex Angul-Saxonum. The origin of this title is not quite clear.

It is generally believed to have arisen from the final See also:

union of the various kingdoms under Alfred in 886. Bede (Hist. Eccl. i. 15) states that the people of the more northern kingdoms (East Anglia, See also:

MERCIA

Mercia, See also:

NORTHUMBRIA (regnum Northanhymbrorum)

Northumbria, &c.) belonged to the See also:

ANGLI, ANGLII

Angli, while those of See also:

Essex, See also:

Sussex and Wessex were sprung from the Saxons (q.v.), and those of Kent and See also:

SOUTHERN

southern See also:

HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OF SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated HANTS)

Hampshire from the See also:

JUTES

Jutes (q.v.). Other early writers, however, do not observe these distinctions, and neither in language nor in custom do we find evidence of any appreciable See also:

DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences between the two former groups, though in custom Kent presents most -remarkable contrasts with the other kingdoms. Still more curious is the fact that West Saxon writers regularly speak of their own nation as a part of the Angelcyn and of their language as Englisc, while the West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that of See also:

BERNICIA

Bernicia. On the other hand, it is by no means impossible that the distinction See also:

DRAWN

drawn by Bede was based solely on the names Essex (East Seaxan), East Anglia, &c. We need not doubt that the Angli and the Saxons were different nations originally; but from the evidence at our disposal it seems likely that they had practically coalesced in very early times, perhaps even before the invasion. At all events the term Angli Saxones seems to have first come into use on the continent, where we find it, nearly a century before Alfred's time, in the writings of See also:

Paulus Diaconus (Paul the See also:

DEACON (Gr. S&& ovos, minister, servant)

Deacon). There can be little doubt, however, that there it was used to distinguish the Teutonic inhabitants of Britain from the Old Saxons of the continent. See W. H.

Stevenson, See also:

ASSER, or ASSERIUS MENEVENSIS (d. c. 910)

Asser's Life of King Alfred (Oxford, 1904, pp. 148 ff.) ; H. Munro Chadwick, The Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907); also BRITAIN, Anglo-Saxon. (H. M.

End of Article: MODERN AUTHORITIES AND REFERENCE

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