See also:

• NAPOLEON

The voters were to choose one-tenth of their number (notabilities of the See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

The latter two, uniting with the two retiring consuls, Sieyes and Ducos, were to form the closed, thanks to the ability of See also:

• FOUCHE, JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO (1763—1820)

The conduct of See also:

• BARRAS, PAUL FRANCOIS NICOLAS, COMTE DE (1755-1829)

In reality matters now rested with the troops out-side. Stung to See also:

• ACTION

Thus, the initiative in See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

Externally, and in a personal sense, the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

(16th of February 1800). Certainly no measure marked more clearly the See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

At first the sharpness of the change was not fully apparent owing to the tactful choice of prefects made by the First Consul; but before See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

It was designed to control all the educational institutions of France, both public and private; and it did so with two exceptions, the Museum and the Colllge de France. The discipline was strict. Fidelity to the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

This was so: abolished in 1790 by the constituent assembly, titles of nobility were virtually restored by Napoleon in 'See also:

• FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse flo, layer, level plain)

Negotiations for peace now followed; but they led to nothing, until Moreau's See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

The beginning of negotiations had been somewhat facilitated by the resignation of See also:

• PITT, THOMAS (1653-1726)
• PITT, WILLIAM (1759-1806)

By retaining nearly all the See also:

• CONTINENTAL

As for the See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

Bonaparte and See also:

• JOSEPHINE (MARIE ROSE JOSEPHINE TASCHER DE LA PAGERIE) (1763–1814)

Bonaparte's action in the years 1800–1802 showed that he feared the old republican party far more than the royalists. In April 1802 he procured the passing of a senates consultum granting increased facilities for the return of the emigres; with few exceptions they were allowed to return, provided that it was before the 23rd of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

He let it be known that he strongly disapproved of their proposal to elect See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

The re-occupation of Switzerland by French troops in October 1802 wrought See also:

• ENGLISH

His own violations of the treaties of Luneville and Amiens were overlooked; and in particular men forgot that the weakening of the Knights of St John by the See also:

• RECENT

Whitworth also warned them on the loth of April that " the chief motives for delay are that they (the French) are totally unprepared for a See also:

• NAVAL

Napoleon's utter disregard of the neutrality of neighbouring states was soon to be revealed in the course of a royalist plot which helped him to the imperial title. Georges Cadoudal, General See also:

• PICHEGRU, CHARLES (1761-1804)

It is noteworthy that though Napoleon at times sought to shift the responsibility for this See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

More important were the titular changes Napoleon, as we have seen, did not venture to create an order of nobility until 18o8, but he at once established an imperial See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

On Josephine's entreaties, the emperor commuted the sentence for eight of the well-connected men among them; Cadoudal and others of lower extraction were executed on the 24th of June. The brave Breton peasant thus summed up the results of his plot: " We meant to give France a king and we have given her an emperor." The mot was literally true. Victories in the field were not more effective in consolidating Napoleon's power than were his own coups d'etat and the supremely skilful use which he made of conspiracies directed against him. He showed his sense of the value of Fouche's services in exploiting the royalist plot of 1803–1804 by reconstituting the ministry of police and bestowing It upon him. Thenceforth plots were few. Would-be plotters remained quiet from sheer terror of his power and ability, or from a conviction that conspiracies redounded to his See also:

• ADVANTAGE

The Italian republic (formerly the Cisalpine republic) became the kingdom of Italy. At first Napoleon desired to endow Joseph, or, on his refusal, Louis, with the See also:

• CROWN

Napoleon showed his indifference to the opinion of the tsar by ordering the seizure of the British See also:

• ENVOY (Fr. envoye, " sent ")

He did so with masterly skill and swiftness, and the triumphs of See also:

• ULM

In order to strengthen this compact, he arranged a marriage between the daughter of the king of Bavaria and Eugene Beauharnais; and he united the daughter of the Elector of Wurttemberg in marriage to Jerome Bonaparte, who had now divorced his wife, formerly See also:

• MISS

Because Pius VII. declined to exclude British goods from the Papal States, Napoleon threatened to reduce the pope to the level merely of See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

They were to be to him what the See also:

• COUNTS

In his belief that he could ensnare the courts of London and St See also:

• PETERSBURG

But before refer-See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

The opportunity was unique; and he now put forth his utmost endeavours to win over to his side the conquered but still formidable tsar. In their first inter-view, held on a raft in the middle of the See also:

• RIVER

Failing the arrival of a favourable reply from London by the 1st of December 1807, the tsar would help Napoleon to compel See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

His confidence that his vastly enhanced powers would enable him first to coerce, and there-after to overthrow, the British empire may be illustrated by his allowing the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

This was natural. Britain, it was true, acting on the initiative of George See also:

• CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL (1812-1862)
• CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827)

Portugal was easily overrun by the allies; but See also:

• JUNOT, A
• JUNOT, ANDOCHE, DUKE
• JUNOT, LAURE, DUCHESS OF ABRANTES (1783-1834)

They prepared for flight to See also:

• AMERICA

He is said to have remarked with an See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

He believed that the arrival of so benevolent a king as Joseph, and the promulgation of a number of useful reforms based on those of the French Revolution, would soothe any passing irritation. If not, then his troops could deal with it as Murat had dealt with the men of Madrid on the 2nd of May. He, therefore, pressed on the march of a corps of French and Swiss troops under See also:

• DUPONT, PIERRE (1821-1870)

Still worse was the prospect when Sir See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

The threat naturally did not tend to reassure statesmen at Vienna; and the tsar now resolved to prevent the See also:

• TOTAL

He refused to join Napoleon in any proposal for the coercion of Austria or the limitation of her armaments. Finally he agreed to join his ally if he (Napoleon) were attacked by the Habsburg power. Napoleon on his side succeeded in adjourning the question of the partition of Turkey; but he awarded the Danubian provinces and Finland to his ally and agreed to withdraw the French garrisons from the Prussian fortresses on the Oder. On the 12th of October both potentates addressed an See also:

• APPEAL

Napoleon was then in the midst of operations against Sir John See also:

• MOORE, A
• MOORE, ALBERT JOSEPH (1841–1893)
• MOORE, EDWARD (1712–1757)
• MOORE, GEORGE (1853– )
• MOORE, GEORGE FOOT (1851– )
• MOORE, HENRY (1831–1895)
• MOORE, JOHN (1729-1802)
• MOORE, SIR JOHN (1761-1809)
• MOORE, THOMAS (1779-1852)

Two days later Napoleon, by means of unworthy artifices, hurried the Austrian plenipotentiaries into signing the treaty of peace at Schonbrunn. The House of Habsburg now ceded See also:

• SALZBURG

Neither Louis Bonaparte nor German douanrers could be trusted to carry out in all their stringency the decrees for the entire exclusion of British commerce from those important regions. In the case of King Louis, family quarrels embittered the relations between the two brothers; but it is clear from Napoleon's letters of November–December 18og that he had even then resolved to annex Holland in order to gain complete control of its customs and of its naval resources. The negotiations which he allowed to go on with England in the spring of 181o, mainly respecting the independence of Holland, are now known to have been insincere. Fouche, for meddling in the negotiations through an See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

Accordingly, on his return to Paris he caused the news to be broken to her that reasons of state of the most urgent kind compelled him to divorce her. An affecting scene took place between them on the 3oth of November 1809; but Napoleon, though moved by her See also:

• DISTRESS

The See also:

• WEDDING

His rapid return from Spain early in 'Sop, and now again refused to do. The campaign of 1812 may, therefore, be considered as resulting, firstly, from the complex and cramping effects of the Continental System on a northern land which could not deprive itself of colonial goods; secondly, from Napoleon's refusal to mitigate the anxiety of Alexander on the Polish question; and thirdly, from the annoyance felt by the tsar at the family matters noticed above. Napoleon undoubtedly entered on the struggle with reluctance. He spoke about it as one that lay in the course of destiny. In one sense he was right. If the Continental System was inevitable the war with Russia was inevitable. But that struggle may more reasonably be ascribed to the rigidity with which he carried out his commercial decrees and his See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

That state, where Bernadotte had latterly been chosen as crown prince, decided to throw off the yoke of the Continental System and join England and Russia, gaining from the latter power the promise of See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

He had recently heard of the attempt of a French republican general, See also:

• MALET, LUCAS

France had subjected half the continent; but her hold on Spain was weakened by See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

She could not put more than 40,000 men in the field (the number to which he had limited her in September 18o8). He therefore heard without dismay at the end of March that Prussia had joined Russia in a league in which Sweden was now an active participant. It was clear that the spiritual forces of the time were also slipping out of his grasp. Early in January he sought to come to terms with the pope (then virtually a See also:

• CAPTIVE (from Lat. capere, to take)

Napoleon began to suspect his father-in-law, and still more the Austrian chancellor, Metternich; but instead of humouring them, he resolved to stand firm. The Austrian demands, first presented to him on the 16th of May, shortly after his victory of Liitzen, were (1) the dissolution of the grand duchy of Warsaw, (2) the withdrawal of France from the lands of north-west Germany annexed in 1810 and (3) the cession to Austria of the Illyrian provinces wrested from her in 18o9. Other terms were held in reserve to be pressed if occasion admitted; but these were all that were put forward at the moment. On this basis Austria was ready to offer her armed mediation to the combatants. Napoleon would not hear of the terms. " I will not have your armed mediation. You are only confusing the whole question. You say you cannot act for me; you are strong, then, only against me." This out-burst of temper was a See also:

• GRAVE

On the 27th of June she promised to join the allies in case Napoleon should not accept these terms. He was now at the crisis of his career. Events had shown that, even after losing half a million of men in Russia, he was a match for her and Prussia combined. Would he now accept the Austrian terms and gain a not disadvantageous peace, for which France was yearning? These terms, it should be noted, would have kept Napoleon's empire intact except in See also:

• ILLYRIA

Talk in this See also:

• OSSIAN

Napoleon on his return to St Cloud inveighed against his ministers for talking so much about peace and declared that he would never give up Holland; France must remain a great empire, and not sink to the level of a mere kingdom. He would never give up Holland; rather than do that, he would cut the dykes and give back that land to the sea. Accordingly on the 16th of November he sent a vague and unsatisfactory reply to the allies; and though Caulaincourt (who now replaced Maret as foreign minister) was on the 2nd of December charged to give a general assent to their terms, yet that assent came too late. The allies had now withdrawn their offer. Napoleon certainly believed that the offer was insincere. Perhaps he was right; but even in that case he should surely have accepted the offer so as to expose their insincerity. As it was, they were able to contrast their moderation with his wrongheadedness, and thereby seek to separate his cause from that of France. In this they only partially succeeded. Murat now joined the allies; Germany, Switzerland and Holland were lost to Napoleon; but when the allies began to invade See also:

• ALSACE (Ger. Elsass)

Nevertheless it led to his abdication. Once more the allies consented to discuss the terms of a general pacification; but the discussions at the See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

To continue the strife when Wellington was firmly established on the line of the See also:

• GARONNE (Lat. Garumna)

As he foresaw, the shrinkage of the great empire into the realm of old France caused See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

He knew that love of novelty and contempt for the gouty old king and his greedy courtiers had brought about this bloodless triumph; and he felt instinctively that he had to deal with a new France, which would not tolerate despotism. On his way to Paris he had been profuse in promises of reform and constitutional See also:

• RULE

The necessity of devising compromises with men who had formerly been his tools fretted him both in mind and body. But when he left parliamentary affairs behind, and took the field, he showed nearly all the power both of initiative and of endurance which marked his masterpiece, the campaign of 1814. To date his decline, as Chaptal does, from the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

The royalists of la See also:

• VENDEE
• VENDEE, WARS OF THE

His See also:

• SPIRITS

451-454) in which Napoleon reflects on the ruin wrought to his cause by the war in Spain, or that (iii. 130) dealing with his fatal mistake in not dismembering Austria after Wagram, and in marrying an Austrian princess—" There I stepped on to an See also:

• ABYSS (Gr. as, privative, ,6u6QOs, bottom)

Clearly it was time to safeguard what remained; and that could best be done under Talleyrand's See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

It was on this understanding (which Las' Cases afterwards misrepresented) that Napoleon on the 15th of July mounted the See also:

• DECK

The memoirs (which may be accepted as mainly Napoleon's, though Montholon undoubtedly touched them up) range over most of the events of his life from See also:

• TOULON

Holland Rose, The Life of Napoleon I. (2 vols., London; 3rd ed., 1905) ; A. See also:

• FOURNIER
• FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON (1712-1768)

See also:

• MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER (1840- )

Early years (1769-1795). Napoleon inconnu (1786-1793), edited by F. Masson (2 vols., Paris, 1895) ; A. Chuquet, La Jeunesse de Napoleon I. (3 vols., Paris, 1897-1899) ; T. Nasica, Memoires sur l'enfance et la jeunesse de Napoleon I. (Paris, 1852) ; B. Gadobert, La Jeunesse de Napoleon I. (Paris, 1897) ; J. See also:

• COLIN, ALEXANDRE (1526-1612)

T. See also:

• JUNG, JOHANN HEINRICH (1740-1817)

Tivaroni, Storia critica del risorgimento italiano (3 vols., See also:

• TURIN

See also:

• LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANCOIS ALFRED (1863— )
• LACROIX, PAUL (1806—1884)

Welschinger, Le duc d'Enghien (Paris, 1888) ; E. Hamel, Histoire des deux conspirations du General Malet (Paris, 1873). (c) Administration, Finance, Education. (For the Code Napoleon see CODE.) * J. Pelet de la See also:

• LOZERE

Gaudin (Due de Gaete), Notice historique sur les finances de la France, 1800-1814 (Paris, 1818); R. Stourm, Les Finances du consulat (Paris, 1902) ; J. B. G. Fabry, Le Genie de la revolution considers dans l'education (3 vols., Paris, 1817-1818) ; F. See also:

• GUIZOT, FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME (1787-1874)

Bailleu, Preussen and Frankreich von 1795-1807; Diplomatische Correspondenzen (2 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1887); Comte D. de Barral, Etude sur l'histoire diplomatique de l'Europe (2nd part), 1789-1815, vol. i. (Paris, 1885) ; O. Browning, England and Napoleon in 1803 (London, 1887) ; H. M. Bowman, Preliminary Stages of the Peace of Amiens (See also:

• TORONTO

(See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Gourgaud, Sainte-Helene: Journal inedite de 1815 a 1818 (2 vols., Paris, 1899) ; See also:

• MARQUIS

The same remark applies to Mrs L. A. Abell's Recollections of the Emperor Napoleon (London, 1844), W. See also:

• WARDEN