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limestone, which has been found in the Wadi Nasb and at other places on the southern border of et-Tih, and also along the western escarpment of the Edom plateau. The fossils include Syringopora, Zaphrentis, Productus, Spirifer, &c., and belong to the Carboniferous. The sandstone which lies below the limestone is also, no doubt, of Carboniferous age; but the sandstone above is conformably over-laid by Upper Cretaceous beds and is generally referred to the See also:

LOWER

Lower Cretaceous. No unconformity, however, has yet been detected anywhere in the sandstone series, and in the See also:

ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of fossils the upper sandstone may represent any period from the Carboniferous to the Cretaceous.

The Upper Cretaceous is represented by limestones with bands of chert, and contains See also:

AMMONITES

Ammonites, Baculites, Hippurites and other fossils. It covers by far the greater See also:

PART

part of Palestine, capping the table-lands of Moab and Edom, and forming most of the high See also:

LAND

land between the See also:

Jordan and the Mediterranean. It is overlaid towards the west by similar limestones, which contain nummulites and belong to the See also:

EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene period; and these are followed near the See also:

COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast by the calcareous sandstone of Philistia, which is referred by See also:

Hull to the Upper Eocene. Lava flows of basic character, belonging to the See also:

TERTIARY

Tertiary period, See also:

COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover extensive areas in Jaulan and Hauran; and smaller patches occur in the land of Moab and also west of the Jordan, especially near the See also:

Sea of Gennesareth. Of See also:

RECENT

Recent deposits the most interesting are the raised beaches near the coast and the terraces of the Jordan-Araba depression. The latter indicate that at one period nearly the whole of this depression was filled with See also:

WATER

water up to a level somewhat above that of the Mediterranean. The See also:

GEOLOGICAL

geological structure of the country is very See also:

SIMPLE

simple in its broad features, but of exceptional See also:

INTEREST

interest. In See also:

general the stratified deposits See also:

lie nearly See also:

FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat and in See also:

REGULAR

regular conformable See also:

SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession, the lowest resting upon the See also:

FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of ancient crystalline rocks. There is, however, a slight See also:

DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in " deep ")

dip towards the west, so that the newest deposits lie near the coast. Moreover, along the eastern side of the Jordan-Araba valley there is a great See also:

FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault, and on the eastern side of this fault the whole series of rocks stands at a much higher level than on the west. Consequently, west of the Jordan almost the whole country is formed of the newer beds (Upper Cretaceous and later), while east of the Jordan the older rocks, sometimes down to the Archean floor, are exposed at the foot of the plateau. The western margin of the valley is possibly defined by another fault which has not yet been detected; but in any See also:

case it is clear that the great depression owes its extraordinary See also:

DEPTH

depth to faulting.

A See also:

LINE

line of depressions of similar character has been traced by E. See also:

SUESS, EDUARD (1831– )

Suess as far south as See also:

Lake See also:

NYASA

Nyasa.' ' See Lortet, La Mer Morte (See also:

Paris, 1877) ; E. Hull, See also:

MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Seir, Sinai and Western Palestine (See also:

LONDON

London, 1885) ; and Memoir on the See also:

CLIMATE

Climate.—Palestine belongs to the sub-tropical See also:

ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone: at the summer See also:

SOLSTICE (Lat. solstitium, from sal, sun, and sistere, to stand still)

solstice the See also:

sun is ten degrees south of the See also:

ZENITH (from the Arabic)

zenith. The length of the See also:

day ranges from ten to fourteen See also:

HOURS, CANONICAL

hours. The great variety of See also:

ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude and of surface characteristics gives rise to a considerable number of See also:

LOCAL

local See also:

CLIMATIC

climatic peculiarities. On the maritime-See also:

PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain the mean See also:

ANNUAL

annual temperature is 70° F., the normal extremes being about 500 to about 90°. The See also:

HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest ripens about a fortnight earlier than among the mountains. Citrons and oranges flourish, as do melons and palms: the latter do not See also:

FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit abundantly, but this is less the fault of climate than of carelessness in fertilization. The rainfall is rather lower than among the mountains. In the mountainous regions the mean annual temperature is about 62°, but there is a great range of variation. In See also:

winter there are often several degrees of See also:

frost, though See also:

SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow very rarely lies for more than a day or two. In summer the thermometer occasionally registers as much as oo° in the shade, or even a degree or two more: this however is exceptional, and 80°-90° is a more normal maximum for the See also:

YEAR

year.

The rainfall is about 28 in., sometimes less, and in exceptional years as much as to in. in excess of this figure has been registered. The See also:

VINE

vine, fig and See also:

OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive grow well in this region. The climate of the Ghor, again, is different. Here the thermometer may rise as high as 130°. The rainfall is scanty, but as no civilized See also:

PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person inhabits the southern end of the Jordan valley throughout the year, and it has hitherto proved impossible to establish self-registering See also:

INSTRUMENTS

instruments, no systematic meteorological observations have been taken. In Eastern Palestine there is even a greater range of temperature; the loftier heights are covered in winter with snow. The thermometer may range within twenty-four hours from freezing-point to 80°. The See also:

RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy See also:

SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season begins about the end of See also:

NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November, usually with a heavy thunderstorm: the See also:

RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain at this part of the year is the " former rain " of the Old Testament. The See also:

earth, baked hard by the summer See also:

HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat, is thus softened, and ploughing begins at once. The wettest See also:

month, as indicated by meteorological observation, is See also:

JANUARY

January; See also:

FEBRUARY

February is second to it, and See also:

DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December third; See also:

March is also a very wet month. In See also:

APRIL

April the rains come to an end (the " latter rains ") and the winter crops receive their final fertilization. The winter crops (See also:

BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley and See also:

wheat) are harvested from April to See also:

JUNE

June.

The summer crops (See also:

millet, See also:

SESAME

sesame, See also:

FIGS

figs, melons, grapes, See also:

OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives, &c.) are fertilized by the heavy " dews " which are one of the most remarkable climatic features of the country and to a large extent atone for the See also:

TOTAL

total lack of rain for one See also:

HALF

half the year. These crops are harvested from See also:

AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August to See also:

OCTOBER

October. Water See also:

SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

Supply.—Notwithstanding the long drought, it must not be supposed that Palestine is a waterless country, except in certain districts. There are very few spots from which a See also:

SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of some sort is not accessible. Perennial streams are, and in the recent geological ages always have been, rare in the country. The whole See also:

FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the land is pitted with ancient cisterns; indeed, many hillsides and See also:

FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields are on that See also:

account most dangerous to walk over by See also:

NIGHT

night, except for those who are thoroughly familiar with the landmarks. These cisterns are See also:

bell-shaped or See also:

BOTTLE (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. butta, a flask; cf. Eng. " butt ")

bottle-shaped excavations, with a narrow circular See also:

shaft in the See also:

TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, hollowed in the See also:

rock and lined with See also:

CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement. Besides these, more ambitious See also:

WORKS

works are to be found, all now more or less ruined, in various parts of the country (see AQUEDUCTS: Ancient). Such are the aqueducts, of which remains exist at See also:

JERICHO (WI:, m;, once ahn:, a word of disputed meaning, whether " fragrant " or " moon [-god] city ")

Jericho, Caesarea and other places east and west of the Jordan; but especially must be mentioned the enormous reservoirs known as See also:

Solomon's Pools, in a valley between Jerusalem and See also:

HEBRON (mod. Khulzl er-Rahman, i.e. " the friend of the Merciful One "—an allusion to Abraham)

Hebron, by which the former See also:

CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city was supplied with water through an elaborate See also:

SYSTEM

system of conduits. Many of these aqueducts, as well as countless See also:

numbers of now leaky cisterns, could with but little trouble be brought into use again, and would greatly enhance the fertility of the country. The most abundant springs in Palestine are the See also:

SOURCES

sources of the Jordan at Banias and at Tell el-Kadi. A considerable number of springs in the country are brackish, bein impregnated with chemicals of various kinds or (when near a See also:

TOWN

town with sewage.

The latter is the case of the Virgin's See also:

FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

Fountain (See also:

Ain Umm ed-Daraj), which is the only natural source of water in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem. Hot springs are found in various parts of the country, especially at El-Hamma, about 1 m. south of See also:

TIBERIAS

Tiberias, where the water has a temperature of 140° F. This is still used for curative purposes, as it was in the days of See also:

Herod, but it is neglected and dirty. The spring of the Zerka Ma'in (Calirrhoe) has a temperature of 142° F. There are also hot See also:

SULPHUR

sulphur springs on the west side of the Dead Sea. Those of El-Hamma, below See also:

GADARA

Gadara, are from 104° to 120° F. in temperature. See also:

FAUNA

Fauna.—It has been calculated that about 595 different See also:

SPECIES

species of vertebrate animals are recorded or still to be found in Palestine—about 113 being mammals (including a few now See also:

EXTINCT

extinct), 348 birds (including 30 species See also:

PECULIAR

peculiar to the country), 91 See also:

REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles and 43 fishes. Of the invertebrata the number is unknown, but it must be enormous. The most important domestic animals are the See also:

sheep and the See also:

GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat; the breed of oxen is small and poor. The See also:

CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel, the See also:

HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse and the donkey are the See also:

DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught animals; the flesh of the first Geology and See also:

GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography of See also:

ARABIA

Arabia Petraea, Palestine and adjoining Districts (London, 1886). is eaten by the poorer classes, as is also occasionally that of the second. The See also:

DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs, which prowl in large numbers See also:

ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the streets of towns and villages, are scarcely domesticated; much the same is true of the See also:

CATS, JACOB (1577-1660)

cats.

See also:

WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

Wild cats, cheetahs and leopards are found, but they are now rare, especially the latter. The See also:

lion, which inhabited the country in the See also:

time of the See also:

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews, is now extinct. The most important wild animals are the See also:

HYENA

hyena, See also:

wolf (now comparatively rare), See also:

fox and See also:

jackal. Bats, various species of rodents, and gazelles are very See also:

COMMON

common, as is the See also:

IBEX

ibex in the valleys of the Dead Sea. Among the most characteristic birds may be mentioned eagles, vultures, owls, partridges, See also:

BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee-eaters and hoopoes; singing birds are on the whole uncommon._ See also:

SNAKES

Snakes—many of them venomous—are numerous, and there are many varieties of lizards. The See also:

CROCODILE

crocodile is seen (but now very rarely) in the Nahr ez-Zerka. Scorpions and large See also:

SPIDERS

spiders are a universal pest. See also:

FLORA

Flora.—The flora of Palestine has a considerable range and variety, owing to the variation in local climatic conditions. In the Jordan valley the vegetation has a semi-tropical character, consonant with the great heat, which here is normal. The coast-plain has another type, i.e. the See also:

ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary vegetation of the Mediterranean littoral. In the mountains the flora is, naturally, scantier than in these two more favoured regions, but even here there is a See also:

rich variety. In all parts of the country the contrast between the landscape in See also:

early spring and later, when the cessation of rains and the increase of heat has burnt up the vegetation, is very remarkable.

See also:

POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.—The inhabitants of Palestine are composed of a large number of elements, differing widely in ethnological See also:

AFFINITIES

affinities, See also:

LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language and See also:

religion. It may be interesting to mention, as an See also:

ILLUSTRATION

illustration of their heterogeneousness, that early in the 20th See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century a See also:

list of no less than fifty See also:

LANGUAGES

languages, spoken in Jerusalem as vernaculars, was there See also:

DRAWN

drawn up by a party of men whose various See also:

OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official positions enabled them to possess accurate See also:

INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information on the subject .l It is therefore no easy task to write concisely and at the same time with sufficient fullness on the See also:

ETHNOLOGY

ethnology of Palestine. There are two classes into which the population of Palestine can be divided—the nomadic and the sedentary. The former is especially characteristic of Eastern Palestine, though Western Palestine also contains its full See also:

SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share. The pure Arab origin of the See also:

BEDOUINS (Ahl Bedu, " dwellers in the open land," or Ahl el beit, " people of the tent," as they call themselves)

Bedouins is recognized in common conversation in the country, the word " Arab " being almost restricted to denote these wanderers, and seldom applied to the dwellers in towns and villages. It should be mentioned that there is another, entirely See also:

INDEPENDENT

independent, See also:

NOMAD (Gr. voµas, voµabes, wandering)

nomad See also:

RACE

race, the despised Nowar, who correspond to the See also:

GIPSIES, or GYPSIES

gipsies or tinkers of See also:

EUROPEAN

European countries. These See also:

PEOPLE

people live under the poorest conditions, by doing See also:

smith's work; they speak among themselves a Romani See also:

DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect, much contaminated with Arabic in its vocabulary. The sedentary population of the country villages—the fellahin, or agriculturists—is, on the whole, comparatively unmixed; but traces of various intrusive strains assert themselves. It is by no means unreasonable to suppose that there is a fundamental Canaanite See also:

ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in this population: the " hewers of See also:

wood and drawers of water " often remain undisturbed through successive occupations of a land; and there is a remark-able See also:

correspondence of type between many of the See also:

MODERN

modern fellahin and skeletons of ancient inhabitants which have been recovered in the course of excavation. New elements no doubt came in under the See also:

ASSYRIAN

Assyrian, See also:

Persian and See also:

ROMAN

Roman dominations, and in more recent times there has been much contamination. The spread of See also:

ISLAM

Islam introduced a very considerable Neo-Arabian infusion. Those from southern Arabia were known as the Yaman tribe, those from See also:

NORTHERN

northern Arabia the Kais (Qais).

These two divisions absorbed the previous See also:

PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant population, and still nominally exist; down to the See also:

MIDDLE

middle of the loth century they were a fruitful source of quarrels and of bloodshed. The two great clans were further subdivided into families, but these See also:

minor divisions are also being gradually broken down. In the loth century the See also:

SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-lived See also:

EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

government introduced into the population an element from that country which still persists in the villages. These newcomers have not been completely assimilated with the villagers among whom they 1 This list was intentionally made as exhaustive as possible, and included some languages (such as Welsh) spoken by one or two individual residents only. But even if, by omitting these accidental items, the list be reduced to See also:

THIRTY

thirty, a sufficient number will be See also:

LEFT

left to indicate the See also:

COSMOPOLITAN (Gr. Kbvµos, world, and IroXirgs, citizen)

cosmopolitan character of the city.have found a See also:

home; the latter despise them, and discourage intermarriage. Some of the larger villages—notably See also:

Bethlehem—which have always been leavened by See also:

CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, and with the development of See also:

INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry have become comparatively prosperous, show tangible results of these happier circumstances in a higher See also:

standard of physique among the men and of See also:

PERSONAL

personal appearance among the See also:

WOMEN

women. It is not uncommon in popular writings to attribute this superiority to a crusader See also:

STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain—a theory which no one can possibly countenance who knows what miserable degenerates the half-breed descendants of the crusaders rapidly became, as a result of their immoral See also:

LIFE

life and their See also:

IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of the sanitary precautions necessary in a trying climate. The population of the larger towns is of a much more complex nature. In each there is primarily a large Arab element, consisting for the greater part of members of important and wealthy families. Thus, in Jerusalem, much of the local See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence is in the hands of the families of El-Khalidi, El-Husseini and one or two others, who derive their descent from the heroes of the early days of Islam. The See also:

TURKISH

Turkish element is small, consisting exclusively of officials sent individually from See also:

Constantinople. There are very large contingents from the Mediterranean countries, especially See also:

ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia, See also:

GREECE

Greece and See also:

Italy, principally engaged in See also:

trade.

The extraordinary development of Jewish colonization has since 1870 effected a revolution in the See also:

BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance of population in some parts of the country, notably in Jerusalem. There are few residents in the country from the more eastern parts of See also:

ASIA

Asia —di we except the See also:

TURKOMAN

Turkoman settlements in the Jaulan, a number of Persians, and a fairly large Afghan See also:

COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony that since 1905 has established itself in Jaffa. The Mutawileh (Motawila), who form the See also:

MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the inhabitants of the villages north-west of See also:

Galilee, are probably long-settled immigrants from See also:

PERSIA

Persia. Some tribes of Kurds live in tents and huts near Lake Huleh. If the inmates of the See also:

COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count-less monastic establishments be excluded, comparatively few from northern or western See also:

EUROPE

Europe will remain: the See also:

German " Templar " colonies being perhaps the most important. There must also be mentioned a Bosnian colony established at Caesarea Palestina, and the Circassian settlements placed in certain centres of Eastern Palestine by the Turkish government in See also:

order to keep a See also:

RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent)

restraint on the Bedouin: the latter are also found in Galilee. There was formerly a large Sudanese and Algerian element in the population of some of the large towns, but these have been much reduced in numbers since the beginning of the loth century: the Algerians however still maintain themselves in parts of Galilee. The most interesting of all the non-Arab communities in the country, however, is without doubt the Samaritan See also:

SECT

sect in Nablus (See also:

SHECHEM (mod. Nablus)

Shechem); a gradually disappearing See also:

BODY

body, which has maintained an independent existence from the time when they were first settled by the Assyrians to occupy the land left See also:

WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste by the captivity of the See also:

KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel. The total population of the country is roughly estimated at 650,000, but no See also:

AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic official See also:

CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census exists from which satisfactory information on this point is obtainable. Some two-thirds of this number are Moslems, the See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest Christians of various sects, and See also:

Jews. The largest town in Palestine is Jerusalem, estimated to contain a population of about 6o,000. The other towns of above Io,000 inhabitants are Jaffa (45,000), See also:

Gaza (35,000), Safed (30,000), Nablus (25,000), See also:

KERAK

Kerak (20,000), Hebron (18,500), Es-See also:

Salt (15,000), See also:

Acre (i1,000), See also:

NAZARETH (mod. en-Ndsira)

Nazareth (I I,oco).

The above remarks apply to the permanent population. They would be incomplete without a passing word on the non-permanent elements which at certain seasons of the year are in the See also:

PRINCIPAL

principal centres the most conspicuous. Especially in winter and early spring crowds of European and See also:

AMERICAN

American tourists, See also:

RUSSIAN

Russian pilgrims and Bokharan devotees jostle one another in the streets in picturesque incongruity. See also:

POLITICAL

Political Divisions.—Under the See also:

OTTOMAN

Ottoman See also:

jurisdiction Palestine has no independent existence. West of the Jordan, and to about half-way between Nablus and Jerusalem, is the southern portion of the vilayet or See also:

province of See also:

BEIRUT

Beirut. South of this point is the sanjak' of Jerusalem, to which Nazareth with its immediate neighbourhood is added, so as to bring all the principal " See also:

HOLY

Holy Places " under one jurisdiction. East of the Jordan the country forms part of the large vilayet of See also:

SYRIA

Syria, whose centre is at See also:

DAMASCUS

Damascus. Communications.—Until 1892 communication through the country was entirely by See also:

CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan, and this See also:

PRIMITIVE

primitive method is still followed over the greater part of its See also:

AREA

area. On the 26th of See also:

SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September of that year a railway between Jaffa and Jerusalem, with five intermediate stations, was opened, and has much facilitated transit between the coast and the mountains of See also:

JUDAEA

Judaea. A railway from See also:

HAIFA

Haifa to Damascus was opened in 1905; it runs across the Plain of Esdraelon, enters the Ghor at Beisan, then, turning northwards, impinges on the Sea of Galilee at Samakh, and runs up the valley of the Yarmuk to join, at ed-Der'a, the line of the third railway. This was undertaken in 1901 to connect Damascus with See also:

MECCA (Arab. Makkah)

Mecca; in 1906 it was finished as far as Ma'an, and in 1908 the See also:

section to See also:

Medina was completed. See also:

CARRIAGE

Carriage-roads also began to be constructed during the last See also:

DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of the 19th century.

They are on the whole carelessly made and maintained, and are liable to go badly and more or less permanently out of repair in heavy rain. Of completed roads the most important are from Jaffa to Haifa, Jaffa to Nablus, Jaffa to Jerusalem, Jaffa to Gaza; Jerusalem to Jericho, Jerusalem to Bethlehem with a See also:

BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch to Hebron, Jerusalem to See also:

KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan Labban —ultimately to be extended to Nablus; and Gaza to See also:

BEERSHEBA

Beersheba. Other roads have been begun in Galilee (e.g. Haifa to Tiberias and to Jenin); but in this respect the northern province is far behind the southern. For the rest there is a network of tracks, all practically impassable by wheeled vehicles, extending over the country and connecting the towns and villages one with another. See also:

INDUSTRIES

Industries.—There are no mines and few manufactures of importance in Palestine: the country is entirely agricultural. Although the processes are primitive and improvements are discouraged, both by the policy of the government and by an indolence and suspiciousness of innovation natural to the people themselves, See also:

FINE

fine crops of cereals are yielded, especially in the large wheat-lands of Hauran. Besides wheat, the following crops are to a greater or less extent cultivated—barley, millet, sesame, See also:

MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize, beans, peas, lentils, kursenni (a species of See also:

VETCH

vetch used as camel-See also:

food) and, in some parts of the country, See also:

TOBACCO

tobacco. The agriculturist has many enemies to contend with, the tax-gatherer being perhaps the most deadly; and drought, earthquakes, rats and locusts have at all periods been responsible for barren years. The fruit trade is very considerable. The value of the oranges exported from Jaffa in 1906 was £162,000; this amount increases annually, and of course in addition a considerable quantity is retained for home See also:

CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption. Besides these are grown melons, mulberries, bananas, apricots, quinces, walnuts, lemons and citron.

The culture of the vine—formerly an important See also:

STAPLE

staple, as is proved by the countless ancient See also:

WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine-presses scattered over the rocky hillsides of the whole country—See also:

fell to some extent into desuetude, no doubt owing to the Moslem See also:

PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition of wine-drinking. It is, however, rapidly returning to favour, principally under Jewish auspices, and numerous vineyards now exist at different centres. All over the country are olive-trees, the fruit and oil of which are a staple product of the country; the trade is however hampered by an excessive tax on trees, which not only discourages See also:

PLANTATION (Lat. plantare, to plant)

plantation, but has the unfortunate effect of encouraging destruction. Other fruit trees are abundant, though less so than those we have mentioned: such are pomegranates, See also:

PEARS

pears, almonds, peaches, and, in the warmer part of the country, palms. Apples are few and poor in quality. The kharrub (carob) is common and yields a fruit eaten by the poorer classes.2 Of ordinary table vegetables a considerable quantity and variety are grown: such are the See also:

CABBAGE

cabbage, cauliflower, solanum (See also:

egg-plant), See also:

CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus, Fr. concombre, O. Fr. coucombre, whence the older English spelling and pronunciation " cowcumber," the standard in England up to the beginning of the 18th century)

cucumber, hibiscus (bamieh), See also:

LETTUCE

lettuce, See also:

CARROT

carrot, See also:

ARTICHOKE

artichoke, &c. The See also:

potato is also grown in considerable quantities. Beside the agricultural there is a considerable See also:

PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral industry, though it is principally confined to See also:

PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production for home consumption. Sheep and goats are bred throughout the country; but the breeding of the beasts of See also:

BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden (donkeys, horses, camels) is chiefly in the hands of the Bedouin. Of the manufactures the following See also:

CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call for mention: pottery (at Gaza, Ramleh and Jerusalem) ; See also:

SOAP

soap (from olive oil, principally at Nablus) ; we may perhaps also extend the See also:

TERM

term to include the See also:

COLLECTING

collecting of salt (from the Dead Sea). This last is a government See also:

MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly, but illicit manufacture and See also:

SMUGGLING

smuggling are highly organized. Some of the minor industries, such as bee-keeping, are practised with success by a few individuals.

Other industries of less importance are See also:

BASKET

basket-making, See also:

WEAVING

weaving, and See also:

SILK

silk and See also:

cotton 1 A sanjak is usually a subordinate See also:

DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of a vilayet, but that of Jerusalem has been independent ever since the See also:

CRIMEAN

Crimean See also:

War. This See also:

CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change was made on account of the trouble involved in referring all complications (arising from questions See also:

RELATING

relating to the political See also:

STANDING

standing of the holy places) to the superior officials of Beirut or Damascus, as had formerly been necessary. 2 Sometimes imagined to be the " locusts " eaten by See also:

John the Baptist, on which account the See also:

tree is often called the See also:

LOCUST

locust-tree. But it was the See also:

INSECT

insect which John used to eat; it is still eaten by the fellahin.manufacture. See also:

Stone-See also:

QUARRYING

quarrying has been fostered since 1900 by the great development of See also:

BUILDING

building at Jerusalem and other places. Wine is manufactured by several of the German and Jewish colonies, and by some of the monastic establishments. Regular See also:

INDUSTRIAL

industrial work is however handicapped by competition with the tourist trade in its several branches—acting as guides and See also:

CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp servants, manufacture and See also:

sale of " souvenirs " (carved toys and trinkets in See also:

MOTHER

mother-of-See also:

pearl and olive-wood, forged antiquities and the like), and the analogous trade in objets de piete (rosaries, crosses, crude religious pictures, &c.) for pilgrims. Travellers in the country squander their See also:

MONEY

money recklessly, and these trades, at once easy and lucrative, are thus fatally attractive to the indolent Syrian and prejudicial to the best interests of the country. (R. A. S. M.) See also:

HISTORY

HISTORY I.—Old Testament History.

Palestine is essentially a land of small divisions, and its configuration does not See also:

fit it to form a See also:

SEPARATE

separate entity; it " has never belonged to one nation and probably never will."3 Its position gives the See also:

key to its history. Along the west coast ran the great road for traders and for the See also:

CAMPAIGNS

campaigns which have made the land famous. The seaports (more especially in Syria, including See also:

PHOENICIA

Phoenicia), were well known to the pirates, traders and sea-See also:

POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the See also:

LEVANT

Levant. The southernmost, Gaza, was joined by a road to the mixed peoples of the Egyptian See also:

DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

Delta, and was also the See also:

PORT

port of the Arabian caravans. Arabia, in its turn, opens out into both Babylonia and Palestine, and a familiar route skirted the desert east of the Jordan into Syria to Damascus and Hamath. Damascus is closely connected with Galilee and Gilead, and has always been in contact with See also:

MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia, See also:

ASSYRIA

Assyria, Asia Minor and Armenia. Thus See also:

PALES

Pales-tine See also:

lay at the See also:

GATE

gate of Arabia and Egypt, and at the tail end of a number of small states stretching up into Asia Minor; it was encircled by the famous ancient civilizations of Babylonia, Assyria, South Arabia and Egypt, of the See also:

HITTITES

Hittites of Asia Minor, and of the See also:

AEGEAN

Aegean peoples. Consequently its history cannot be isolated from that of the surrounding lands. Recent See also:

RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research in bringing to See also:

LIGHT

light considerable portions of long-forgotten ages is revolutionizing those impressions which were based upon the Old Testament—the sacred writings of a small fraction of this great area; and a broad survey of the vicissitudes of this area furnishes a truer See also:

PERSPECTIVE (Lat. peespicere, to see through)

perspective of the few centuries which concern the biblical student.° The history of the Israelites is only one aspect of the history of Palestine, and this is part of the history of a very closely interrelated portion of a See also:

WORLD

world sharing many similar forms of thought and See also:

CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom. It will be necessary here to approach the subject from a point of view which is less familiar to the biblical student, and to treat Palestine not merely as the land of the See also:

Bible, but as a land which has played a part in history for certainly more than 4000 years. The See also:

close of Old Testament history (the See also:

BOOK

book of See also:

NEHEMIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] comforts ")

Nehemiah) in the Persian age forms a convenient division between ancient Palestine and the career of the land under non-See also:

ORIENTAL

oriental influence during the See also:

Greek and Roman ages. It also marks the See also:

CULMINATION (from Lat. culmen, summit)

culmination of a lengthy See also:

HISTORICAL

historical and religious development in the See also:

ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of Judaism and its inveterate See also:

RIVAL

rival Samaritanism.

The most important data bearing upon the first great period are given elsewhere in this work, and it is proposed to offer here a more general survey.° To the prehistoric ages belong the See also:

PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. iraXates, old, and )tWBor, stone)

palaeolithic and See also:

NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

neolithic flints, from the See also:

DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of which an See also:

ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt might be made to give a synthetic See also:

SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of early Palestinian See also:

man.° Beginning A See also:

BURIAL

burial See also:

cave at See also:

GEZER

Gezer has revealed the existence B history. of a race of slight build and stature, See also:

MUSCULAR

muscular, with elongated crania, and thick and heavy See also:

SKULL

skull-bones. The 3 G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land, p. 58. This and the author's See also:

art. " Trade and See also:

Commerce," Ency. Bib. vol. iv., and his Jerusalem (London, 1907), are invaluable for the relation between Palestinian geography and history. For the wider See also:

GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical relations, see especially D. G. See also:

HOGARTH, WILLIAM (1697–1764)

Hogarth, Nearer East (London, 1902).

' See especially the writings of H. Winckler, in the 3rd ed. of See also:

SCHRADER, EBERHARD (1836-1908)

Schrader's Keilinschriften and das Ails Test. (See also:

Berlin, 1903) ; his Religionsgeschichtlicher u. geschichtlicher Orient (1906), &c. ° See the articles on the surrounding countries and peoples, and, for the biblical traditions, art. JEws. e See H. See also:

Vincent, See also:

CANAAN, CANAANITES

Canaan d'aprks l'exploration recente (Paris, 1907), pp. 374 sqq., also pp. 392-426. people lived in caves or See also:

RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude huts, and had domesticated animals (sheep, cow, See also:

pig, goat), the bones of which they fashioned into various implements. Physically they are quite distinct from the normal type, also found at Gezer, which was taller, of stronger build, with well-See also:

DEVELOPED

developed skulls, and is akin both to the Sinaitic and Palestinian type illustrated upon Egyptian monuments from c. 3000 B.C., and to the modern native.' The study of Oriental ethnology in the light of history is still very incomplete, but the regular trend of events points to a mixture of races from the south (the home of the Semites) and the north.

At what period Palestine first became the " Semitic " land, which it has always remained, is uncertain; nor can one decide whether the characteristic megalithic monuments, especially to the east of the Jordan, are due to the first See also:

WAVE

wave which introduced the Semitic (Canaanite) dialect and the See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place-names. At all events during the last centuries of the third See also:

MILLENNIUM (a pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy of biennium, triennium, from Lat. milk, a thousand, and armies, year)

millennium B.C., remarkable for the high See also:

state of civilization in Babylonia, Egypt and See also:

CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete, Palestine shares in the active life and intercourse of the age; and while its fertile fields are visited by Egypt, Babylonia (under Gimil-See also:

Sin, Gudea and See also:

SARGON

Sargon) claims some supremacy over the west as far as the Mediterranean. A more definite See also:

STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage is reached in the period of the See also:

HYKSOS

Hyksos (c. 1700), the invaders of Egypt, whose See also:

ASIATIC

Asiatic origin is sug- gested inter alia by the proper-names which include B urtian See also:

SUZERAINTY

suzerainty. " See also:

Jacob " and " Anath " as deities? After their See also:

EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion it is very significant to find that Egypt forthwith enters upon a series of campaigns in Palestine and Syria as far as the See also:

EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates, and its successes ova is See also:

DISTRICT

district whose political See also:

FATE

fate was See also:

BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound up with Assyria and Asia Miner laid the foundation of a policy which became traditional. Apart from rather disconnected details which belong properly to the history of Babylonia and Egypt, it is not until about the 16th century B.C. that Palestine appears in the clear light of history, and henceforth its course can be traced with some sort oI continuity. Of fundamental importance are the Amarna See also:

CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

cuneiform tablets discovered in 1887, containing some of the political correspondence between Western Asia and Egypt for a few years of the reigns of Amenophis III. and IV. (c. 1414-13tio).3 The first Babylonian See also:

DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty, now well known for its Khammurabi, belonged to the past, but the cuneiform script and language are still used among the Hittites of Asia Minor (centring at Boghaz-keui) and the See also:

KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of Syria and Palestine. Egypt itself was now passing from its greatness, and the Hi ttites (q.v.)—the term is open to some, See also:

criticism—were its rivals for the See also:

possession of the intervening lands. Peoples (apparently Iranian) of Hittite connexion from the powerful state of Mitanni (Northern Syria and Mesopotamia) had already left their See also:

mark as far south as Jerusalem, as may be inferred from the personal names,4 and to the intercourse with (apparently) Aegean culture revealed by excavation, the letters add references to mercenaries and bands from Meluliha (viz.

Arabia), Mesopotamia and the Levant. The diminutive cities of this cosmopolitan Palestine were ruled by kings, not necessarily of the native stock; some were appointed—and even anointed—by the Egyptian See also:

king, and the small extent of these city-states is obvious from the references to the kings of such near-lying sites as Jerusalem, Gezer, Ashkelon and See also:

LACHISH

Lachish. Torn by mutual See also:

JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy and intrigue, and forming little confederations among ' For See also:

fuller treatment of the data see R. A. S. Macalister's See also:

COMPLETE

complete memoir of the Gezer excavations. 2 Reference may be made to Ed. See also:

Meyer's admirable survey of Oriental histo down to this age, Gesch. d. Altertums (Berlin, 1909), also to H. Breasted, Hist. of Egypt (London, 1906), bks. i.-1v.; and L. King, Hist. of Bab. and See also:

Ass vol. i.

(London, 1910). Some knowledge of the culture, religion, history and interrelations over the area of which Palestine formed part is indispensable for any careful study of the ages upon which we now enter. 3 See the admirable edition by J. A. Knudtzon, with full notes by O. See also:

Weber (See also:

LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1907-1910). For their bearing on Palestine, see especially P. Dhorme, Rev. biblique (1908), pp. 500-519; (1909), PP. 60--73, 368-385. Dhorme, op. cit. (1909), pp.

6o sqq ; H. R. See also:

Hall, Proc. See also:

Soc. Bibl. See also:

Arch. (1909), xxxi. 233 seq.; Weber, op. cit., p. Io88 seq.; cf. A. H. See also:

SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846- )

Sayce, Arch. of Cuneiform Inscr.

(1907), pp. 193 sqq.themselves, they were See also:

UNITED

united by their common recognition of the Egyptian suzerain, their See also:

court of See also:

APPEAL

appeal, or in some short-lived attempt to withstand him. Apart from Jerusalem and a few towns on the coast, the real See also:

WEIGHT

weight lay to the north, and especially in the state of Amor.5 It is an age of See also:

INTERNAL

internal disorganization and of heavy pressure by land and by sea from Northern Syria and Asia Minor. The land seethes with excitement, and Palestine, wavering between See also:

ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance to Egypt and intrigues with the great movements at its north, is unable to take any independent line of See also:

ACTION

action. The letters vividly describe the approach of the enemy, and, in appealing to Egypt, abound in protestations of See also:

LOYALTY

loyalty, complaints of the disloyalty of other kings and excuses for the writers' suspicious conduct. Of exceptional interest are the letters from Jerusalem describing the hostility of the maritime coast and the disturbances of the },iabiru (" See also:

ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies "), a name which, though often equated with that of the Hebrews, may have no ethnological or historical si'gnificance.e But Egypt was unable to help the See also:

LOYALISTS

loyalists, even ancient Mitanni lost its political See also:

independence, and the supremacy of the Hittites was assured. The history of the age illustrated by the Amarna letters is continued in the tablets found at Boghaz-keui, the See also:

capital of the old Hittite See also:

EMPIRE

Empire? Subsequent Egyptian See also:

EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence records that Seti I. (c. 1320) of the XIXth Dynasty led an expedition into Palestine, but struggles with the Hittites continued until See also:

RAMESES, or RAMESSES (Gen. xlvii. r1; Exod. xii. 37; Num. xxxiii. 3)

Rameses II. (c. 1300) concluded with them an elaborate treaty which left him little more than Palestine.

Even this province was with difficulty maintained: the disturbances in the Levant and in Asia Minor (which belong to Aegean and Hittite history) and the revival of Assyria were reshaping the political history of Western Asia. Under Rameses III. (c. 1200-1169) we may recognize another age of disorganization in Palestine, in the movements with which the See also:

PHILISTINES

Philistines (q.v.) were concerned. Nevertheless, Egypt seems to have enjoyed a fresh spell of extended supremacy, and Rameses apparently succeeded in recovering Palestine and some part of Syria. But it was the close of a lengthy period during which Egypt had endeavoured to keep Palestine detached from Asia, and Palestine had realized the significance of a powerful empire at its south-western border. Somewhat later Tiglath-Pileser (c. r too) pushed the limits of Assyrian suzerainty westwards over the lands formerly held by the great Hittite Empire. It is at this age, when the See also:

EXTERNAL

external evidence becomes extremely fragmentary, that new political movements were inaugurated and new confederations of states sprang into existence. Palestine had been politically part of Egypt or of the Hittite Empire; we now reach the stage where it becomes more closely identified with Israelite history. Palestine had not as yet been absorbed by any of the great powers with whose history and culture it had been so closely bound up for so many centuries. In the "Amarna" age the little kings had a certain measure of rode- period. TheAmaraa pendence, provided they guarded the royal caravan routes, paid See also:

TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute, refrained from See also:

CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy, and generally supported their suzerain and his agents.

However profound the influence of Babylonia may have been, excavation has discovered comparatively few specific traces of it. Although cuneiform was used, the Palestinian letters show that the native language, as in the case of earlier proper-names, was most nearly akin to the later " Canaanite " (Hebrew, Moabite ' and Phoenician). In view of the relations subsisting among Pales-tine, Mitanni and the Hittites, it is evident that Babylonian 6 Amor (Ass. Amurru, Bibl. Amerite), lay, north of See also:

Lebanon and behind Phoenicia; but the term fluctuates (Weber, op. cit., 1 132 sqq.). See art. See also:

AMORITES

AMORITES. and A. T. See also:

Clay, Amurru (See also:

PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia, 1909). 6 See H. Winckler, See also:

ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

Altar. Forschung.

(1902), M. 22; W. M. See also:

Muller in I. Benzinger, Heb. Archaol. (1907), p. 445; B. Eerdmans, Alttest. See also:

STUD

Stud. (1908), ii. 61 sqq.; Dhorme, op. cit.

(1909), pp. 697 sqq. The See also:

MOVEMENT

movement of the Habiru cannot be isolated from that represented in other letters (where the enemy are not described by this term), and their steps do not agree with those of the invading Israelites in the book of See also:

JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua (q.v.). 7 H. Winckler, Mitteil. d. deutschen Orient-Gesell. z. Berlin (1907) No. 35; cf. J. Garstang, Land of Hittites (London, 1910), 326 sqq, influence could have entered indirectly; and until one can determine how much is specifically Babylonian the analogies and See also:

PARALLELS

parallels cannot be made the ground for sweeping assertions. The influence of a superior See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power upon the culture of a people cannot of course be denied; but history proves that it depends upon the resemblance between the two peoples and their respective levels of thought, and that it is not necessarily either deep or lasting. A better case might be made for Egypt; yet notwithstanding the presence of its colonies, the cult of its gods, the erection of temples or shrines, and the numerous traces of intercourse exposed by excavation, Palestine was Asiatic rather than Egyptian. Indeed Asiatic influence made itself See also:

FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in Egypt before the Hyksos age, and later, and more strongly, during the XVIIIth and following Dynasties, and deities of Syro-Palestinian fame (Resheph, See also:

BAAL

Baal, Anath, the Baalath of Byblos, Kadesh, See also:

ASTARTE

Astarte) found a hospitable welcome.

On the whole, there was everywhere a common foundation of culture and thought, with local, tribal and See also:

NATIONAL

national developments; and it is useful to observe the striking similarity of religious phraseology throughout the Semitic sources, and its similarity with the ideas in the Egyptian texts. And this becomes more instructive when comparison is made between cuneiform or Egyptian sources extending over many centuries and particular See also:

groups of evidence (Amarna letters, Canaanite and Aramaean See also:

INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions, the Old Testament and later Jewish literature to the See also:

TALMUD

Talmud), and pursued to the customs and beliefs of the same area to-day. The result is to emphasize (a) the inveterate and indissoluble connexion between religious, social and political life, (b) the See also:

DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences between the ordinary current religious conceptions and specific See also:

POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive developments of them, and (c) the vicissitudes of these particular growths in their relation to history.' There is reason to believe that the religion of Palestine in the Amarna age was no inchoate or inarticulate belief; like the Religion. material culture it had passed through the elementary stages and was a fully established though not, perhaps, a very advanced organism. There were doubtless then, as later, numerous local deities, closely connected with local districts, differing perhaps in name, but the centre of similar ideas as regards their relations to their worshippers. Com- mercial and political intercourse had also brought a knowledge of other deities, who were See also:

worth venerating, or who were the survivors of a former supremacy, or whose recognition was enforced. It is particularly interesting to find in the Amarna letters that the supremacy of Egypt meant also that of the national See also:

god, and the loyal Palestinian kings acknowledge that their land belonged to Egypt's king and god. In accordance with what is now known to be a very widespread belief, the kingship was a semi-divine See also:

FUNCTION

function, and the See also:

PHARAOH (Par'oh)

Pharaoh was the incarnation of Amon-Re. This would bring a greater coherence of See also:

WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship among the See also:

CHAOS

chaos of local cults. The See also:

PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty kings naturally recognize the identity of the Pharaoh, and they See also:

HAIL (O. Eng. kcegl and hagol, 1 cf. the cognate Teutonic hagel, as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. K&XX17E, pebble, is probably allied)

hail him as their god and identify him with the heads of their own See also:

PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. srav& ov, all-holy, from re, s, all, and Oeor god)

pantheon. Thus he is called—in the cuneiform letters—their See also:

SHAMASH, or AMAS

Shamash or their Addu. The former, the sun-deity, god of See also:

JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, &c., was already well known, to See also:

JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge from Palestinian place-names (Beth-Shemesh, &c.).

The latter, See also:

storm or See also:

WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather god, or, in another aspect, god of rain and therefore of fertility, is specifically West Asiatic, and may be equated with See also:

HADAD

Hadad and Ramman (see below). He is presumably the Baal who is associated with See also:

THUNDER

thunder and See also:

LIGHTNING

lightning, and with the See also:

bull, and who was familiar to the Egyptians of the XIXth and XXth Dynasties in the adulations of their divine king. He is probably also " the See also:

lord of the gods " (the See also:

head of a pantheon) invoked in a private cuneiform tablet unearthed at Taanach.2 Besides these gods, and others whose fame may be inferred (See also:

DAGON

Dagon, 1 Much confusion can be and has been caused by disregarding-(h) and by supposing that the appearance of similar elements of thought or custom implied the presence of similar more complete organisms (e.g. See also:

TOTEMISM

totemism, astral religion, See also:

jurisprudence). Cf. p. 182, n. 4. 2 See, most recently, Ungnad's See also:

TRANSLATION

translation in H. Gressmann, Ausgrabungen in See also:

PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

Pal. u. d. A. T. (See also:

TUBINGEN

Tubingen, 1908), p. 19 seq.

The See also:

TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title " lord of See also:

HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven "—whether the Sun or Addu, there was a Nebo, See also:

NERGAL

Nergal, &c.), there were the closely-related goddesses Ashira and See also:

ISHTAR

Ishtar-Astarte (the Old Testament Asherah and Ashtoreth). Possibly the name Yahweh (see See also:

JEHOVAH (YAHWEH2)

JEHOVAH) had already entered Palestine, but it is not prominent, and if, as in the case of certain other deities, the extension of the name and cult went See also:

hand-in-hand with political circumstances, these must be sought in the problems of the Hebrew See also:

MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy.3 At an age when there were no great external empires to See also:

CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control Palestine the Hebrew monarchy arose and claimed a premier place amid its neighbours (c. See also:

I000

I000). How the small Rise of the rival districts with their petty kings were united Hebrew into a kingdom under a single head is a disputed Monarchy. question; the stages from the half-Hittite, half-Egyptian land to the independent Hebrew state with its national god are an unsolved problem. Biblical tradition quite plausibly represents a mighty invasion of tribes who had come from Southern Palestine and Northern Arabia (Elath, Ezion-See also:

GEBER

geber)—but primarily from Egypt—and, after a series of national " See also:

JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges," established the kingship. But no place can be found for this See also:

CONQUEST

conquest, as it is described, either before the "Amarna " age (the date, following 1 Kings vi. 1) or about the time of Rameses II. and Mineptah (see Exod. i. Ii); and if the latter king (c. 1244) records the subjugation of the people (? or land) " Israel, the complicated history of names does not See also:

GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee the See also:

ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute identity of this " Israel " either with the pure Israelite tribes which invaded the land or with the intermixed people after this event (see JEws: §§ 6-8). Whatever may have been the extent of this invasion and the sequel, the rise and persistence of an independent Palestinian kingdom was an event which concerned the neighbouring states. Its stability and the necessary furtherance of commerce, usual among Oriental kings, depended upon the attitude of the maritime coast (Philistia and Phoenicia), Edom, Moab, See also:

Ammon, Gilead and the Syrian states; and the biblical and external records for the next four centuries (to 586) frequently illustrate situations growing out of this interrelation. The evidence of the course of these See also:

CRUCIAL (from Lat. crux, a cross)

crucial years is unequal and often sadly fragmentary, and is more conveniently noticed in connexion with the biblical history (see JEws: §§ 9-17).

A conspicuous feature is the difficulty of maintaining this single monarchy, which, however it originated, speedily became two rival states (See also:

JUDAH

Judah and Israel). These are separated by a very ambiguous frontier, and have their geographical and political links to the south and north respectively. The balance of power moves now to Israel and now to Judah, and tendencies to internal disintegration are illustrated by the dynastic changes in Israel and by the revolts and intrigues in both states. As the power of the surrounding empires revived, these entered again into Palestinian history. As regards Egypt, apart from a few references in biblical history (e.g. to its interference in Philistia and friendliness to Judah, see See also:

PHILISTINE

PHILISTINE), the See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief event was the great invasion by Sheshonk (Shishak) in the latter part of the loth century; but although it appears to be an isolated See also:

CAMPAIGN

campaign, contact with Egypt, to judge from the archaeological results of the excavations, was never intermittent. The next definite stage is the dynasty of the Israelite See also:

OMRI

Omri (q.v.), to whom is ascribed the See also:

FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding of the city of See also:

SAMARIA

Samaria. The dynasty lasted nearly half a century, and is contemporary with the expansion of Phoenicia, and presumably therefore with some prominence of the south maritime coast. The royal houses of Phoenicia, Israel and Judah were united by inter-See also:

MARRIAGE

marriage, and the last two by See also:

JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint undertakings in trade and war (See also:

note also I Kings ix. 26 seq.). Meanwhile Assyria was gradually establishing itself westwards, and a remarkable See also:

CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

confederation of the heirs of the old Hittite kingdom, Appach kings of the land of See also:

VAAL

Vaal " (the Assyrian term of Assyria. for the Hittites) was formed to oppose it. Southern Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Ammon, the Syrian Desert and Israel (under Omri's son " See also:

AHAB (in Heb. 'ah'(ib, " father's brother ")

Ahab the Israelite ") sent their troops to support Damascus which, in spite of the repeated efforts of tendency to identify them—was perhaps known in Palestine, as it certainly was in Egypt and among the Hittites. 3 See S.

A. See also:

Cook, Expositor, Aug. 1910, pp. 111-127. See also:

SHALMANESER [Ass. Sulmanu-afarid, " the god Sulman (Solomon) is chief "]

Shalmaneser,' was evidently able to hold its own from 854 to 839. The See also:

ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-Assyrian See also:

ALLIANCE

alliance was, as often in west Asia, a temporary one, and the inveterate rivalries of the small states are illustrated, in a striking manner, in the downfall of Omri's dynasty and the rise of that of See also:

JEHU

Jehu (842-c. 745); in the See also:

BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter onslaughts of Damascus upon Israel, leading nearly to its annihilation; in an unsuccessful attack upon the king of Hamath by Damascus, See also:

CILICIA

Cilicia and small states in north Syria; in an Israelite expedition against Judah and Jerusalem (2 Kings xiv. 13 seq.); and finally in the recovery and extension of Israelite power—perhaps to Damascus—under See also:

JEROBOAM (Heb. ydrob`dm, apparently " Am ['the clan,' here perhaps a divine name] contends "; LXX. iepof3oaµ)

Jeroboam II. In such vicissitudes as these Palestinian history proceeds upon a much larger See also:

scale than the national biblical records relate, and the external evidence is of the greatest importance for the light it throws upon the varying situations. Syria could control the situation, and it in turn was influenced by the ambitions of Assyria, to whose See also:

ADVANTAGE

advantage it was when the small states were See also:

RENT

rent by mutual suspicion and hostility. It is possible, too, that, as the states did not See also:

SCRUPLE

scruple to take advantage of the difficulties of their rivals, Assyria played a more prominent part in keeping these jealousies alive than the evidence actually states. Moreover, in the light of these moves and See also:

COUNTER

counter-moves one must interpret the isolated or incomplete narratives of Hebrew history.2 The repeated blows of Assyria did not pre-vent the See also:

NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of fresh expeditions, and later, See also:

ADAD

Adad-Nirari III.

(812–783) claims as tributary the land of Hatti, Amor, See also:

TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre, See also:

SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon, " the land of Omri " (Israel), Edom and Philistia. Israel at the See also:

DEATH

death of Jeroboam was rent by divided factions, whereas Judah (under See also:

UZZIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] is [my] strength ")

Uzziah) has now become a powerful kingdom, controlling both Philistia and the Edomite port of Elath on the gulf of `Akaba. The dependence of Judaean See also:

SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty upon these districts was inevitable; the resources of Jerusalem obviously did not rely upon the small district of Judah alone. If Ammon also was tributary (2 Chron: See also:

XXVI

xxvi. 8, See also:

XXVII

xxvii.), dealings with Israel and perhaps Damascus could probably be inferred. A new period begins with Tiglath-Pileser IV. (745–728): See also:

pro- and anti-Assyrian parties now make themselves felt, and predomi when north Syria was taken in 738, Tyre, Sidon, nance of Damascus (under Rezin), " Samaria " (under Assyria. See also:

MENAHEM (Hebrew for " consoler ")

Menahem) and a See also:

queen of Aribi were among the tributaries. It is possible that Judah (under Uzziah and Jotham) had come to an understanding with Assyria; at all events See also:

AHAZ (Heb. for "[Yahweh] holds ")

Ahaz was at once encircled by fierce attacks, and was only saved by Tiglath-Pileser's campaign against Philistia, north Israel and Damascus. With the See also:

SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege and fall of Damascus (733–32) Assyria gained the north, and its supremacy was recognized by the tribes of the Syrian desert and Arabia (Aribi, Tema, Sheba). In 722 Samaria, though under an Assyrian See also:

VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

vassal (See also:

HOSHEA (Heb. for " deliverance ")

Hoshea the last king), joined with Philistia in revolt; in 72o it was allied with Gaza and Damascus, and the persistence of unrest is evident when Sargon in 715 found it necessary to transport into Samaria various peoples of the desert. Judah itself was next involved in an anti-Assyrian See also:

LEAGUE

league (with Edom, Moab and Philistia), but apparently submitted in time; nevertheless a decade later (701), after the change of dynasty in Assyria, it participated in a great but unsuccessful effort from Phoenicia to Philistia to shake off the yoke, and suffered disastrously.' With the crushing blows upon Syria and Samaria the centre of interest moves southwards and the history is influenced by Assyria's rival Babylonia (under See also:

MARDUK (Bib'. MERODACH2)

Marduk-baladan and his successors), by north Arabia and by Egypt.

Henceforth there is little Samarian history, and of Judah, for nearly a century, few political events are recorded (JEws: § 16). Judah was under Assyrian supremacy, and, although it was involved with Arabians in the revolt planned by Babylonia t Recently found to be the third of that name (H. W. See also:

Hogg, The Interpreter, 1910, p. 329). 2 So e.g. in references to Ammon, Damascus and Hamath, and in Judaean relations with Philistia, Moab and Edom. ' See art. See also:

HEZEKIAH (Heb. for " [my] strength is [of] Yah ")

HEZEKIAH. A recently published inscription of See also:

SENNACHERIB (Ass. Sin-akhi-erba, " the Moon-god has increased the brethren ")

Sennacherib (of 694 B.c.) mentions enslaved peoples from Philistia and Tyre, but does not name Judah.(against Assurbanipal), it appears to have been generally quiescent. At this stage disturbances, now by Aramaean tribes, now by Arabia, combine with the new rise of Egypt and the weakness of Assyria to mark a turning-point in the world's history. See also:

PSAMMETICHUS (Egypt. Psammetk)

Psammetichus (Psamtek) I. (663–609) with Lgyp Revivalt.of his Greeks, Carians, See also:

IONIANS

Ionians and soldiers from Pales- tine and Syria, re-established once more an Egyptian Empire, and replaced the fluctuating relations between Palestine and the small dynasts of the Delta by a settled policy.

Trading intercommunication in the Levant and the See also:

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant passage to and fro of merchants brought Egypt to the front, and, in an age of archaic revival, the effort was made to re-establish the ancient supremacy over Palestine and Syria. The precise meaning of these changes for Palestinian history and life can only incompletely be perceived, and even the significance of the great Scythian invasion and of the greater movements with which it was connected is uncertain (see See also:

SCYTHIA (Gr. EKuOia)

SCYTHIA). At all events, Egypt (under Necho, 609–593) prepared to take advantage of the decay of Assyria, and marched into Asia. Judah (under See also:

JOSIAH (Heb. yo' shiyydhu, perhaps " Yah [weh] supports ")

Josiah) was overthrown at Megiddo, where about nine centuries previously the victory of Tethmoses (Thutmose) III. had made Egypt supreme over Palestine and Syria. But Egypt was now at once confronted by the Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean Empire (under Nabopolassar), which, after annihilating Assyria with the help of the Medians, naturally claimed a right to the Mediterranean coast-lands. The defeat of Necho by See also:

NEBUCHADREZZAR, or NEBUCHADNEZZAR

Nebuchadrezzar at Carchemish (605) is one of the world-famous battles. Although Syria and Palestine now became Babylonian, this revival of the Egyptian Empire aroused hopes in Judah of deliverance and led to revolts (under See also:

JEHOIACHIN (Heb. " Yah[weh] establisheth ")

Jehoiachin and See also:

ZEDEKIAH (Hebrew for " righteousness of Yah[weh] ")

Zedekiah), in which Judah was apparently not sahylonian alone.' They culminated in the fall of this kingdom empira. in 586. Henceforth the history of Palestine is disconnected and fragmentary, and the few known events of political importance are isolated and can be supplemented only by inferences from the movements of Egypt, Philistia or Phoenicia, or from the Old Testament. According to the Chaldean Nabonidus (553) all the kings from Gaza to the Euphrates assisted in his buildings, and the Chaldean policy generally appears to have been favourable towards faithful vassals. See also:

Cyrus meanwhile was rising to See also:

lead the Persians against See also:

MEDIA

Media. After a career of success he captured Babylonia (553) and forth-with claimed, in his famous inscription, the submission of Amor.

For the next 200 years Palestine remained part of the new Persian Empire which, with all its ramifications on land and on sea, embraced the civilized world from the Himalayas to the Levant, until the See also:

ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of See also:

Alexander the Great (see JEws: § 19). Very gradually the face of history underwent a complete change. Egypt had resumed its earlier connexions with the Levantine heirs of the ancient Aegeans, the old empires of the Nearer East had practically exhausted themselves, and Palestine passed into the fresh life and thought of the Greeks. (See below, p. 617.) In any See also:

CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the internal conditions in Palestine it must be observed that there is a continuity of thought, custom and culture which is independent of political changes and vicissitudes of names. With the establishment of an independent monarchy Palestine did not enter into a new world. Whatever internal changes ensued between the " Amarna " age and l000 B.C., they have not left their mark upon the course of culture illustrated by the excavations. These still indicate communication with Egypt and the north (Syria, Asia Minor; Assyria and the Levant not excluded), and even when a novel culture presents itself, as in certain See also:

GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves at Gezer, the affinities are with See also:

Cyprus and Asia Minor (See also:

CARIA

Caria) of about the rrth or loth century.' The use of ' Cf. Jer. xxvii. 2 seq., and the history of the Egyptian Hophra (See also:

APRIES ('Aapcns)

Apries, 588-569). At See also:

PRESENT

present it is difficult as regards Palestine to distinguish Aegean influence (See also:

DIRECT

direct and indirect) from that of Asia Mit,or generally. Only after the old Cretan (Minoan) culture had passed its zenith and was already decadent does it suddenly appear 'n Cyprus (H.

R. Hall, Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch. xxxi. 227). Internal Conditions. Northern Influences. See also:

IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron came in about this time, perhaps from the north, and biblical history (r Kings x. 28 seq., see the commentaries) even ascribes to Solomon the import of horses from Kue and Musri (Cilicia and See also:

CAPPADOCIA

Cappadocia). The cuneiform script, which continued in Egypt during the XIXth and XXth Dynasties, was perhaps still used in Palestine; it was doubtless familiar at least during the Assyrian supremacy. But in the meanwhile the " North Semitic " See also:

ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet appears (from 850) with almost identical forms in extreme north Syria (e.g.

Sam'al), in Cyprus, Gezer, AlQhahet. and in Moab. The type is very closely related to the oldest European (See also:

ETRUSCAN

Etruscan) forms, and, in a less degree, to the " South Semitic " (old Minaean and Sabaean); and since it at once begins (c. 700) to develop along separate paths (Canaanite and Aramaean), it may be inferred that the common ancestor was not of long derivation. This alphabet stands in contrast to the old varying types of the Aegean and Asia Minor area and can hardly be of local origin. Under what historical circumstances it was first distributed over Palestine and Syria is uncertain; it is a plausible conjecture that once more the north is responsible.' Too little is known of the north as a See also:

FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in Palestinian development to allow hasty inferences, but it is certainly noteworthy, at all events, that the names Amor and See also:

HAITI [HAITI, HAYTI, SAN DOMINGO, Or HISPANIOLA]

Haiti appear to move downwards, and that " Hittite " is applied to Palestine and Philistia by the Assyrians, and to Hebron in the Old Testament, and that See also:

EZEKIEL (SKpm', " God strengthens" or " God is strong "; Sept. 'IE'EKL?)X; Vulg. Ezechiel)

Ezekiel (xvi. 3) calls Canaanite Jerusalem the offspring of an Amorite and a Hittite. It is to be observed, however, that the meaning of geographical and ethnical terms for culture in general must be properly tested—the term " Phoenician " is a conspicuous case in point. Thus, in north Syria the art has Assyrian and Hittite affinities, but is provincial and sometimes rough. Some of the personal names are See also:

FOREIGN

foreign and find analogues in Asia Minor; but even as the Philistines appear in biblical history as a " Semitic " people, so inscriptions from north Syria (c. 800-700) are in Canaanite and early Aramaean dialects, and are in entire agreement with " Semitic " thought and ideas. The deities too generally See also:

bear familiar names. In Sam'al the kings Panammu and Q-r-1 have lion-Semitic names (Carian), but the gods include The Gods.

Hadad, El (God See also:

PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par excellence), Resheph and the Sun-deity. In Hamath we meet with the Baal of Heaven, Sun and See also:

Moon deities, gods of heaven and earth, and others. A god " Most High " (`elyon) was perhaps already known in Hamath.2 The " Baal of Heaven," reminiscent of the Egyptian title " lord of heaven," given long before to Resheph, appears in the pantheon of Tyre (c. 677). The reference here is probably to the inveterate Hadad who, in his Aramaean form Ramman (Rimmon), is found in Palestine. Among the Hebrews, Yahweh, some of whose features See also:

ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate him with thunder, lightning and storm, and with the gifts of the earth, has now become the national god, like the Moabite Chemosh or the Ammonite Milcolm. (For the Edomite gods, see EDOM.) The name is known in the form Ya'u in north Syria (8th century), and, so far as the Israelite kings are concerned, appears first in the See also:

FAMILY

family of Ahab. No images of Yahweh or of earlier Canaanite deities have been unearthed; but images belong to a relatively advanced stage in the development of religion, and the aniconic stage may be represented by the sacred pillars and posts, by the small See also:

MODELS

models of heads of bulls, and by the evidence for See also:

calf-cults in the Old Testament d Yahweh was by no means the only god. Inter- , On the points of contact with old Cretan and Anatolian scripts see A. J. See also:

Evans, Scripta Minoa (See also:

Oxford, 1909), p. 8o sqq.

The persistence of evidence for the importance of Aegean and Asia Minor (" Hittite ") peoples in the study of Palestine and surrounding lands is one of the most interesting features of recent See also:

DISCOVERY

discovery. Cf. H. Hogarth, See also:

IONIA

Ionia and the East (Oxford, 1909), pp. 64 sqq.; E. Meyer, Gesch. d. Altertums, i. §§ 490, 523. 2 So Dhorme interprets the place-name Ur(light of)-jii-le-e-ni (Rev. Bibl. 1910, p. 67).

3 See CALF, See also:

GOLDEN

GOLDEN, and note the See also:

REPRESENTATION

representation of a 'calf at er,Rumman (Ramman = Hadad) in east Jordan (Gressmann p. 35). It is obvious that the strict injunctions in Exod. xx. 4, Dent. iv. 16 sqq., 23, 25, and other references to See also:

IDOLATRY

idolatry, are the outcome of a reaction against images. XX. 20course and alliance introduced the cults of Chernosh, Milcom, the Baal of Tyre and the Astarte of Sidon. Excavation has brought to light figurines of the Egyptian See also:

OSIRIS

Osiris, See also:

ISIS (Egyptian Ese)

Isis, Ptah, See also:

ANUBIS (in Egyptian Anap, written Inpw in hieroglyphs)

Anubis and especially See also:

BES, or BESAS (Egyp. Bes or Besa)

Bes. Assyrian conquest and domination influenced the cults at all events outside Judah and Israel, and when Sargon sent skilled men to See also:

TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach " the fear of God and the king " (cyl. incr. 72-74) the spread of Assyrian religious ideas among the Hebrews themselves is to be expected. Certainly about 600 the Queen of Heaven, who has Assyrian traits, was a favourite See also:

OBJECT

object of veneration (Jer. vii. 18, xliv.

17-19, 25); yet already a century earlier the goddess " Ishtar of heaven " was worshipped. by a desert tribe (see See also:

ISHMAEL (a Hebrew name meaning " God hears ")

ISHMAEL), and the titles " See also:

LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady of heaven," " See also:

BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

bride of the king of heaven," had been applied centuries before to west Asiatic goddesses (Anath, Kadesh, Ashira, &c.). Although no goddess is associated with the national god Yahweh, See also:

FEMALE

female deities abounded, as is amply shown by the numerous plaques of the great mother-goddess found in course of excavation. The picture which the evidence furnishes is as fundamental for our conception of Palestine during the monarchies as were the Amarna tablets for the age before they arose. The external evidence does not point to any intervening See also:

HIATUS (Lat. for gaping, or gap)

hiatus, and the archaeological data from the excavations do not reveal any dislocation of earlier conditions; earlier forms have simply developed and the See also:

EVOLUTION

evolution is a progressive one. Down to and at the time of the Assyrian supremacy, Palestine in religion and history was merely part of the greater area of mingled peoples sharing the same characteristics of custom and belief. This does not mean of course that the religion had no ethical traits—ethical motives are frequently found in the old Oriental religions—but they were bound up with certain naturalistic conceptions of the relation between deities and men, and herein lay their weakness.' In the age of the Assyrian supremacy Palestine entered upon a series of changes, lasting for about three centuries (from about 740), which were of the greatest significance for its internal development. The sweeping conquests heZsyrian of Assyria were " as See also:

CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical for religious as for See also:

CIVIL

civil Domination. history."b The brutal methods of warfare, the cruel treatment of vanquished districts or cities, and the redistribution of bodies of inhabitants, See also:

broke the old bonds uniting deities, people and land. The framework of society was shattered, communal life and religion were disorganized. As the See also:

flood poured over Syria and flowed south, Israel (Samaria) suffered grievously, and the gaps caused by war and See also:

DEPORTATION

deportation were filled up by the introduction of new settlers by Sargon, and by his successors in the 7th century. Unfortunately, there is very little evidence in the biblical history for the subsequent career of Samaria, but it is clear that the old Israel of the dynasties of Omri and Jehu received crushing blows. The fact that among the new settlers were desert tribes, suggests the introduction, not merely of a simpler culture, but also of simpler groups of ideas. In the nature of the case, as time elapsed the new population must have taken See also:

root as securely as—one must conclude—the invading Israelites had done some centuries earlier.

As a matter of fact the prophets See also:

JEREMIAH

Jeremiah and Ezekiel by no means regarded the population lying to the north of Judah as strangers, and the latter in turn were ready to share the Judaean See also:

DISTRESS

distress at the fall of Jerusalem (Jer. xli. 5), and in later years offered to assist in rebuilding Yahweh's See also:

temple. Indeed, since the See also:

SAMARITANS

Samaritans subsequently accepted the See also:

PENTATEUCH

Pentateuch, and claimed to inherit the ancestral traditions of the Israelite tribes, it is of no little value in the study of Palestinian history to observe the manner in which this people of singularly mixed origin so thoroughly assimilated itself to the land and at first was virtually a Jewish sect. But Samaria was not the only land to suffer. Judah, towards the close of the 8th century, was obviously very closely bound up with Philistia, Edom and Egypt; and this and Hezekiah's dealings with the anti-Assyrian party at See also:

EKRON (better, as in the Septuagint and Josephus, ACCARON, 'AKhapWV)

Ekron do not indicate that any feeling of national exclusiveness, or any abhorrence of the 4 W. R. Smith, Rd. of the Semites (London, 1894), p. 58. 6 Ibid. p. 35; cf. pp. 65, 77 sqq., 358. II " uncircumcised Philistines " predominated.

From the description of Sennacherib's invasion it is clear that social and economic conditions must have been seriously, perhaps radically disturbed,' and the quiescence of Judah during the next few decades implies an internal weakness and a submission to Assyrian supremacy. During the 7th century new movements were coming from Arabia, and tribes growing ever more restless made an invasion east of the Jordan through Edom, Moab and Ammon. Although they were repulsed, this awakening of a land which has so often fed Palestine and Syria, when viewed with the increasing weakness of Assyria, and subsequent vicissitudes in the history of the Edomites, See also:

NABATAEANS

Nabataeans and East Jordan tribes, forbids us to treat the invasion as an isolated See also:

RAID

raid .2 Later, the fall of the Judaean kingdom and the deportation of the leading classes brought a new social upheaval. The land was not denuded, and the fact that " some scores of thousands of Jews remained in Judah through all the period of the See also:

EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile,"3 even though they were " the poorest of the land," revolutionizes ordinary notions of this period. (See JEws: § 18). But the Judaean historians have successfully concealed the course of events, although, as has long been recognized, there was some movement inaugura- upwards from the south of Judah of groups closely See also:

don of related to Edomite and kindred peoples of South Nendiittons. Palestine and Northern Arabia. The immigrants, C like the new occupants of Samaria, gradually assimilated themselves to the new soil; but the circumstances can hardly be recovered, and even the relations between Judah and Samaria can only be inferred. In the latter part of the 6th century we find some restoration, some revival of the old monarchy in the person of Zerubbabel (520 B.C.); but again the course of events is problematical (JEws, § 20).4 Not until the middle of the 5th century do the biblical records (book of Nehemiah) furnish a foundation for any reconstruction. Here Jerusalem is in sore distress and in urgent need of reorganization. Zerubbabel's age is of the past, and any attempt to revive political aspirations is considered detrimental to the interests of the surrounding peoples and of the Persian Empire. Scattered evidence suggests that the Edomites were responsible for a new See also:

CATASTROPHE (Gr. Karaurpoch, from KaraQrp4ecv, to over-turn)

catastrophe.

Amid internal and external difficulties Nehemiah proceeds to repair religious and social abuses, and there is an important return of exiles from Babylonia. The ruling classes are related partly to the southern groups already mentioned and partly to Samaria; but the kingship of old is replaced by a high-See also:

PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, and, under the influence of Babylonian Jews of the strictest principles, a See also:

BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach was made between Judah and Samaria which has never been healed (JEws: § 21 seq.). Biblical history itself recognizes in the times of See also:

ARTAXERXES

Artaxerxes, Nehemiah and See also:

Ezra the commencement of a new era, and although only too much remains obscure we have in these centuries a series of vicissitudes which separate the old Palestine of Egyptian, Hittite, Babylonian and Assyrian supremacy from the land which was about to enter the circle of Greek and Roman civilization. This division, it may be added, also seems to leave its mark upon the lengthy archaeological history of Palestine from the earliest times to the See also:

BYZANTINE

Byzantine age. There is a certain poverty and decadence of art, a certain simplicity of civilization and a decline in the shape and decoration of pottery which seems to exhibit signs of derivation from skin prototypes elsewhere associated with desert peoples. This phase comes at a stage which severs the earlier phases (including the " Amarna " age) from those which are very closely connected ' See Smit Jerusale i 16 196 se . . . . . . .with Seleucid and later times. Its appearance has been associated with the invasion of the Israelites or with the establishment of the independent monarchy, but on very inadequate grounds; and since it has been independently placed at the latter part of the monarchy, its historical explanation may presumably be found in that break in the career of Palestine when peoples were changed and new organizations slowly See also:

GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up.5 The great significance of these vicissitudes for the course of internal conditions in Palestine is evident when it is observed that the subsequent cleavage between Judah and Samaria, not earlier than the 5th century, presupposes an antecedent common foundation which, in view of the history of the monarchies, can hardly be earlier than the 7th century. These centuries represent an age which the Jewish historians have partly ignored (as regards Samaria) and partly obscured (as regards the return from exile and the reconstruction of Judah); but since this age stands at the head of an historical development which leads on to Christianity and Rabbinical Judaism, it is necessary to turn from Palestine as a land in order to See also:

NOTICE

notice more particularly certain features of the Old Testament upon which the foregoing evidence directly bears. The Old Testament is essentially a Palestinian, an Oriental, work and is entirely in See also:

ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord with Oriental thought and custom.6 Yet, in its characteristic religion and B16/See also:

ICA (YCA, or ECCA)

ica legislation there are essential spiritual and ethical Rejig oa. peculiarities which give it a uniqueness and a permanent value, the reality of which becomes more impressive when the Old Testament is viewed, not merely from a See also:

Christian or a Jewish See also:

TELEOLOGY (Gr. Taos, end)

teleology, but in the light of ancient, See also:

MEDIEVAL

medieval and modern Palestine.

The ideas which characterize the Old Testament are planted upon lower levels of thought, and they appear in different aspects (legal, prophetical, historical) and with certain developments both within its pages and in subsequent literature. To ignore or to obscure the features which are opposed to these ideas would be to ignore the See also:

witness of external evidence and to obscure the old Testament itself. The books were compiled and preserved for definite aims, and their teaching is directed now to the needs of the people as a whole—as in the ever popular stories of See also:

Genesis—now to the inculcation of the lessons of the past, and now to matters of See also:

RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual. They are addressed to a people whose See also:

MENTAL

mental processes and See also:

PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy were primitive; and since teaching, in order to be communicable, must adapt itself to current beliefs of God, man and nature—and the inveterate conservatism of man must he See also:

BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in mind--the trend of ideas must not be confused with the See also:

AVERAGE

average standard of thought? The teaching was not necessarily presented in the form of an over-elaborated moral See also:

LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

lesson, but was associated with conceptions familiar to the land; and when these conceptions are examined from the anthropological standpoint, they are found to contain much that is See also:

STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange and even abhorrent to modern convictions of a purely spiritual deity. There are moreover many traces of conflicting ideas and ideals, of cruder beliefs and customs, and of attempts to remove or elevate them. In Genesis and elsewhere there are examples of popular thought which have not the characteristic spirit of the prophets, and which, it is clear, could only gradually be purified. The notion of a Yahweh scarcely less limited in power than man, the naive views of supernatural beings and their nearness to man, and the persistence of features which stand relatively See also:

low in the scale of mental culture, only serve to enhance the reality of the spirit which inspired the endeavour to reform. There were See also:

RITES

rites and customs which only after See also:

LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

lapse of time were considered iniquitous. Magical practices and forms of sacred See also:

PROSTITUTION (from Lat. prostituere, to expose publicly)

prostitution and human See also:

SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice were familiar, and the denunciations of the prophets and the 5 For the See also:

LATE

late date, see F. See also:

Petrie, Tell-el-Hesy (1891), p. 47 seq., and See also:

BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833– )

Bliss and Macalister, Excavations in Palestine (1902), pp.

72, 74, 101, 124; and, for the See also:

SUGGESTION

suggestion in the See also:

TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text, S. A. Cook, Expositor, (Aug 1909), pp. 104-114. 6 See, e.g., E. Sellin, Alttest. Relig. See also:

IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Rahmen der andern altorientalischen (Leipzig, 1908). 7 On the characteristics of primitive thought, see G. F. Stout, See also:

MANUAL

Manual of See also:

Psychology (London, 1907), Bk. IV., especially pp. 574-579.

2 See L. B. See also:

Paton, Early Hist. of Syria and Pal. (London, 1902), p. 269; Winkler, Keilinschr. u. das A.T., p. 151. $ G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, ii. 269. 4 On ordinary historical grounds it is probable that there was a political reorganization and a See also:

WELDING (i.e. the action of the verb " to weld," the same word as " to well," to boil or spring up, the history of the word being to boil, to heat to a high degree, to beat heated iron; according to Skeat, who points out that in Swedish the compound verb

welding of the diverse elements throughout the land (J. A.

See also:

Montgomery, The Samaritans, Phila- delphia, 1907; p. 62 seq.). There is internal See also:

LITERARY

literary support for this in the criticism of See also:

DEUTERONOMY

Deuteronomy (which appears to have in view a comprehensive Israel and Judah at this period), and of various passages evidently earlier than Nehemiah's time (see R. H. See also:

KENNETT, WHITE (1660–1728)

Kennett, Journ. of Theol. Stud., 1905, pp. 175-181; 1906, pp. 486, 498). lawgivers show very vividly the - persistence of what was current religion but was hostile to their teaching.' There is an astonishing boisterousness (cf. Lam. ii. 7), joviality and sensualism, all in striking contrast to the austerity of nomad See also:

ASCETICISM

asceticism. There is a ferocity and fanaticism which manifests itself in the belief that war was a sacred campaign of deity against deity.

Even if the account of the " ban " (utter destruction) at the Israelite conquest be unhistorical, it repreeents current ideas (cf. Josh. vi. 17 seq.; r Sam. xv. 3; 2 Kings xv. 16; 2 Chron. See also:

xxv. 12 seq.), and implies imperfect views of the Godhead at a more advanced stage of religion and morality. There are conflicting ideas of death and the dead, and among them the belief in the very human feelings and needs of the dead and in their influence for good or evil? Moreover, the proximity of burial-place and See also:

SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary and the belief in the kindly care of the famous dead for their descendants reflect " primitive " and persisting ideas which find their pi See also:

TEES

tees. parallel in the holy tombs of religious or See also:

SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular heroes in modern Palestine, and exemplify the firmness of the See also:

LINK

link uniting local groups with local numens. " The permanence of religion at holy places in the East "3 is one of the most important features in the relation between popular and national religion. The local centres will survive political and historical vicissitudes and the changes of national cults and sects, and may outlive the national deities. The supernatural beings may change their name and may vary externally under Greek, Roman, See also:

MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan or Christian influence; but their relation to the local groups remains essentially the same, although there is no regression to earlier organic connexions. The inveterate local, one may perhaps say immediate, powers are felt to be nearer at hand than the national deity, who is more closely bound up with the changing national fortunes and with current philosophy.

These smaller deities are, as it were, telluric, and the territory of each is virtually henotheistic—as also its traditions—and even as to-day the See also:

SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints or patrons enjoy a more real veneration among the peasants than does the See also:

ALLAH

Allah of the orthodox, the long-established worship of the ancient local beings always hampered the reformers of Yahwism (cf. Jer. ii. 28, xi. 13).4 Whether they could be regarded as so many manifestations of a single deity or as really distinct entities, there were at all events similar and well understood relations between each and its See also:

GROUP

group; and although the cult was nature-worship and was attended with a licentiousness which See also:

drew forth the denunciations of the prophets, this is only one aspect of the local deity's place in the religious conceptions of his circle. The excavations (at Gezer, Megiddo, Jericho, &c.) indicate a persisting See also:

GROSS

gross and cruel idolatry, utterly opposed to the demands of the See also:

law and the prophets.. Jerusalem and the surrounding district have ominous See also:

HEATHEN

heathen associations .6 Jerusalem itself lay off ' See generally E. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alter-turns (Berlin, 1909), i. §§ 342 sqq. Ceremonial licentiousness was perhaps of northern origin (Meyer § 345), and as a preliminary to marriage seems to have been known not only in Assyria (Herod. i. 199), but also in Palestine (" a law of the Amorites "; Test. of Judah, ed. R.

H. See also:

Charles, xxii. 2) ; cf. E. 'S. Hartland, Anthropol. Essays . . . E. B. See also:

TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT (1832- )

Tylor (Oxford, 1907), pp. 189-202.

(For See also:

MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous material see J. G. Frazer, ibid. pp. 101–174: " Folk-See also:

lore in the Old Testament.") 2 See P. Torge, Seelenglaube u. Unsterblichkeitshoffnung im See also:

Allen Test. (Leipzig, 1909). 3 The title of an instructive See also:

ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay by See also:

Sir W. M. See also:

Ramsay in the Expositor, Nov. 1906, pp. 454 sqq.

The whole subject involves also the various forms and developments of See also:

hero- and See also:

SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint-cults, on which cf. E. See also:

LUCIUS

Lucius, Anfange d. Heiligenkultus, &c. (Tubingen, 1904) ; P. Saintyves, Saints successeurs See also:

des dieux (Paris, 1907) ' On the old Baals of Palestine, see H. P. Smith, in 0. T. and Semitic Studies in Memory of W. R. Harper (See also:

Chicago, i9o8), i. 35-64.

For the persistence of the " high places," see G. F. See also:

Moore, Ency. Bib. arts. " High Place," " Idolatry and Primitive Religion." ' Vincent, Canaan, p. 204; cf. S. R. See also:

DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846– )

Driver, Modern Research as illustrating the Bible (London, 1'909), pp. 6o sqq., 90. 6 Viz. the shrines of Chemosh, See also:

MOLOCH, or MOLECH (in Hebrew, with the doubtful exception of i Kings xi. 7, always " the Molech ")

Moloch, Baal of Tyre and Astarte of Sidon (r Kings xi. 1–8; 2 Kings xi.

18, See also:

XXIII

xxiii.); the valley of Hinnom (see J. A. Montgomery, Journ. Bibl. Lit. xxvii. i. 24-47); and the place-names Anathoth (" Anaths"), See also:

Nob (Nebo?), Bethninib, Beth-shemesh. The name Jerusalem may be compoundedthe See also:

main line of intercourse and one may look for a certain conservatism in its famous Temple. Temples, shrines and holy places were no novelty in Palestine, and the in- Jerusalem auguration of the great centre of Judaism is ascribed and the to Solomon the son of the great conqueror See also:

David. Temple. Phoenician aid was enlisted to build it, and the Egyptian analogies to the construction accord with the known influence of Egypt upon Phoenician art. It is the dwelling-place of the deity, the centre of the nation and of the national hopes; the fall of the Temple follows after Yahweh left it, it is rebuilt and he returns (Zech. viii. 3).

The Temple is merely part of the royal See also:

PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace and the government buildings (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq.), and this is as significant as the king's position in its management. It is in keeping with the old conceptions of the divine kingship, which, though they survive only in isolated biblical references, live on in the ideals of the Messianic king and his kingdom and in the See also:

POST

post-exilic high priest? The Temple is built, ornamented and furnished on lines which are quite incompatible with a spiritual religion, Mythical features abound in the See also:

CHERUBIM

cherubim and See also:

SERAPHIM

seraphim, the pillars of Jachin and Boaz, the mysterious Nehushtan, the See also:

BRONZE

bronze-sea and the lavers. These agree with the more or less clear allusions in the Old Testament to myths of creation, See also:

Eden, See also:

DELUGE, THE (through the Fr. from Lat. diluvium, flood, diluere, to wash away)

deluge, mountain of gods, Titanic folk, world-dragons, heavenly hosts, &c., and also with the unearthed See also:

SEALS

seals, tablets, altars, &c. representing mythical ideas. The ideas occur in varying forms from Egypt to Babylonia and point to a considerable body of thought, which is not less impressive when one takes into account the instances in the Old Testament where myths have been rationalized, elevated, or otherwise re-moved from their older forms (e.g. the See also:

story of the See also:

BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of See also:

Moses, accounts of creation and deluge, &c.), or when one observes the subsequent uncompromising objection to a display of See also:

ARTISTIC

artistic meaning, implying that it aroused definite conceptions. To reinterpret all these features as See also:

mere symbols, the See also:

LUMBER

lumber of ancient days, is to avoid the problem of their introduction into the , Temple, and to assume an advance of popular thought which is not confirmed by the retention and fresh developments of the old ideas both in the pseudepigraphical literature and in the literature of Rabbinical Judaism.' The horses of the sun-god (2 Kings xxiii. II), too, belong to a group of ideas which may perhaps be associated with the See also:

plan of the Temple and with the old hymn of See also:

DEDICATION (Lat. dedicatio, from dedicare, to proclaim, to announce)

dedication (r Kings viii. 12 seq.). At all events, when one considers the Babylonian-Assyrian conceptions of Shamash as the supreme and righteous judge, god of truth and justice, or the monotheism of Amenophis IV. and his fine hymn to the sun-god, it is certain that a corresponding Palestinian deity would not necessarily be without ethical and elevated associations" In short, the place which the Temple held in with that of a deity (Winckler, Kell. u. A.T.

224 seq. ; G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, ii. 25 seq.), and the deity Sedek is curiously associated with the names of the Jerusalem priests Zadok, Jehozadak (cf. See also:

MELCHIZEDEK (Heb. for " king of righteousness "; or, since Sedek is probably the name of a god, " Sedelt is my king ")

Melchizedek of See also:

SALEM

Salem, Gen. xiv.), and the kings Adonizedek and Zedekiah. The strange character of the names of the first kings in Israel and Judah (See also:

SAUL (Heb. shd'ul, " asked ")

Saul, David and Solomon), noticed already by A. H. Sayce (Modern See also:

REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, 1884, pp. 158-169), cannot easily be explained. 7 See A. B.

See also:

Davidson, Theol. of 0. T. (See also:

EDINBURGH

Edinburgh, 1904), p. 9; J. G. Frazer, See also:

ADONIS

Adonis, See also:

ATTIS

Attis and Osiris (London, 1907), pp. 12 sqq., 401. Cf. the title " The Anointed of Yahweh," the simile " as a messenger (See also:

ANGEL

angel) of Yahweh " (2 Sam. xiv. 17, xix. 27), and the See also:

IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the king as the embodiment of his people's safety (2 Sam. xxi. 17; Lam. iv. 20).

This absence of the deification of the king is characteristic of biblical religion which recognizes Yahweh as the only king; see H. Gressmann, Ursprung d. Israel. jiid. Eschatologie (See also:

GOTTINGEN

Gottingen, 1905), pp. 250 sqq. 3 For examples of the persistence of the interrelated ideas—whether of astral significance or not is another question—see A. Jeremias, See also:

BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon im Neuen Test. (Leipzig, 1905), Das Alte Test. im Lichte d. See also:

ALTEN, SIR CHARLES [Karl] (1764–1840)

Alten Orients (1906) ; E. Bischoff, Bab. Astrales im Weltbilde d, Thalmud it. Midrasch (1907).

2 Cf. for an excellent example of Oriental religious thought, the fine Babylonian hymn to Ishtar (i.e. Astarte). L. W. King, Seven Tablets of Creation (London, 1907), pp. 222-237, and the specimens in R. W. See also:

Rogers, Ral of Bab. and Ass. in its Relations to Israel (London 1908), pp. 142-184. On ethical conceptions of heathen deities, see I. King, Development of Religion (New See also:

York, 1910), pp. 268-286.

religious thought (cf. especially See also:

Isaiah), the character of the reforms ascribed to Josiah (2 Kings xxiii.), the pictures drawn by Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and the latter's condemnation of the half-Hittite, half-Amorite capital, combine with the events of later history to prove that the religion of the national sanctuary must not be too narrowly estimated from the denunciations of more spiritual minds or from a priori views of the inevitable concomitants of either henotheism or mono-See also:

theism or of a lofty ethical teaching. There is indeed a development, but it is none the less note-worthy that the post-exilic priestly ritual preserves in the post-exilic worship of the universal and only God Yahweh, Develop- rites, practices and ideas which can be understood mens& only in the light of other nature-religions, especially that of Babylonia, with which there are striking parallels.' For example, the See also:

EPHOD

ephod, an object of See also:

divination, is still retained, but it is now restricted to the high-priest; and his position as head of a theocratic state, and his ceremonial See also:

DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress with its heathenish associations presuppose a past monarchy.2 Clad in almost barbaric splendour (cf. Ecclus. xlv., 1., and Jos. See also:

Ant. iii. 7, &c.) he embodies the See also:

GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of the worshipping body like the kings of old, and sometimes plays as important a part in the later political history. The priestly system, as represented in the Pentateuch, is not fitted for the desert, where its See also:

INITIATION (Lat. inilium, beginning, entrance, from mire, to go in)

initiation is ascribed, but on independent internal critical grounds belongs to the post-exilic age, where it stands at the head of further developments. It is the See also:

ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of the prophets' conceptions of Yahweh to old religious ideas, the building up of new conceptions upon an old basis, a See also:

FUSION

fusion " between old heathen notions and prophetic ideas," and " this fusion is characteristic of the entire priestly law." a The priestly religion bound together the community in a way that alone preserved Jewish mono-theism; it stands at the head of a long, unintermittent history, and it is to be viewed, not so much as the See also:

CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax of Old Testament religion, but as one of a series of inseparable stages. In concentrating the religious observances of the people upon Jerusalem, its Temple and its priesthood, it became less spontaneous, and its services more remote from ordinary life. It left See also:

ROOM

room for rival See also:

SCHOOLS

schools and sects, both within and without the priestly circles, and for continued development of the older and non-priestly thought. These reacted upon this institutional religion, which readapted and reinterpreted itself from time to time, and when they did not help to build up another See also:

THEOLOGY

theology (as in Christianity), they ended by assuming too rigid and unprogressive a shape (see See also:

QARAITES, or KARAITES

QARAITES), or, breaking away from long-tried See also:

convention, became a See also:

MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

mysticism with mixed results (see See also:

KABBALAH (late Hebrew kabbalah, gabbalah)

KABBALAH). While these vicissitudes take us away from Palestine, the course of native religious thought is very significant for its relation to the earlier stages. Although the national God was at once a transcendent ruler of the universe and also near at hand to man, the unconscious religious feeling found an outlet, not only in the splendid worship at Jerusalem, but in the more immediate intercessors, divine agencies, and the like; and when Judaism left its native soil the local supernatural beings revived—as characteristically as when the old place-names threw off their Greek dress—and they still survive, under a See also:

VENEER

veneer of Mahommedanism, as the modern representatives of the Baals of the distant past.' 'The presence of parallels also in South Arabian and Phoenician cults suggests that the old Palestinian ritual was in general agreement with the Oriental religions.

Specific influence on the part of Babylonia is not excluded; but the absence of striking points of agreement in other portions of the Old Testament may not be See also:

CLUE

clue to anything else than the particular character of the circles to which they belonged. 2 See C. See also:

WESTPHAL, RUDOLF (1826—1892)

Westphal, Jahwes Wohnstatten (See also:

GIESSEN

Giessen, 1908), pp. 137 sqq. A. Jeremias, Hilprecht Anniversary See also:

VOLUME

Volume (1910), pp. 223-242, and art. See also:

COSTUME: Oriental. a C. G. See also:

MONTEFIORE, SIR MOSES HAIM (1784–1885)

Montefiore, in the Hibbert Lectures, 1892, p. 320, cf. p.

322 (" [the] marriage of heathen practice and monotheistic use is one al the oddest and saddest features of the whole priestly See also:

CODE (Lat. codex)

code "), cf. also p. 411, and, in general, Lectures vi.–ix. See Clermont-Canneau, Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. Statem. (1875), pp. 209 sqq.; C. R. See also:

CONDER, CHARLES (1868—1909)

Conder, See also:

TENT

Tent Work in Palestine (London, 1878), ii. 218 sqq.; J. G.

Frazer, op. cit., p. 71, &c.; H. Gressmann, The uniqueness of the Old Testament religion is stamped upon the See also:

MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

Mosaic legislation, which combines in archaic manner ritual, ethical and civil enactments. As a whole, Blbllcat the economic conditions implied are pastoral and Law. agricultural, and are relatively primitive; and the general rudimentary character of the legal ideas appears in the death See also:

PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty for the See also:

GORING, GEORGE GORING, LORD (1608-1657)

goring ox (Exod. xxi. 28), resort to See also:

ORDEAL (O.Eng. ordal, ordael, judgment)

ordeal (Num. v. 11–31), and in the treatment of See also:

MURDER

murder, family, marriage, slaves and See also:

PROPERTY

property. The use of See also:

writing is once contemplated (the " See also:

BILL

bill of See also:

DIVORCE

divorce," Deut. See also:

XXIV

xxiv. 3), but not in ordinary business; oaths and symbols are used instead of written contracts, and the commercial law is notably scanty. The simplicity of the legislation is also See also:

MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest in the land-system in Lev. xxv., which implies a fresh beginning and not a readjustment of earlier See also:

LAWS

laws. In property succession there social is a feeling of tribal aloofness which would not be pgolation. favourable to a central authority; and in fact the legal machinery is rude, and the carrying out of the law depends not so much upon courts and officials as upon religious considerations. If there is a supreme court, it is priestly (Deut. xvii. 8-13), and the legislation is bound up with the worship of Yahweh, who avenges wrong.

This legislation appears as that of the Israelites, newly escaped from bondage in Egypt, joined by an ethical See also:

covenant-relation with Yahweh, and waiting in the desert to enter and conquer the land of their ancestors. But it is remarkable that, although within the Old Testament itself there are certain different backgrounds, important See also:

variations and developments of law, these are relatively insignificant when we consider the profound changes from the 15th–13th centuries (apparent by the period of the conquest) to the close of Old Testament history. Yet, the conditions in Palestine during the monarchies reveal See also:

GRAVE

grave and complex social problems, marked class distinctions, and constant intercourse and commercial enterprise. There was no place for tribal exclusiveness, and the upkeep of a monarchy (including the Temple) and the occasional See also:

PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of tribute would require duly appointed officials and a central body. The pentateuchal laws relating to women belong to the country rather than to town life (note the picture of feminine luxury in Isa. iii. 16 sqq.; cf. See also:

Amos iv. 1–3). In general the pentateuchal legislation as a whole presupposes an undeveloped state of society, and would have been inadequate if not partly obsolete or unintelligible during the monarchies.5 But more elaborate legal usages had long been known outside Palestine, and, to judge from the Talmud and the Syrian law-code (c. 5th century A.D.), long prevailed. Oriental law is primitive or advanced according to the social conditions, with the result that antiquity of ideas is no criterion of date, and modern desert custom is more archaic than the great code of the Babylonian king Khammurabi Babylonian See also:

LaR. (c.

2000 B.c.). Common law is merely part of the national life, and where it is implicated with religion there is no uniformity over an area comprising different groups of people. In such a case there is resort to a controlling authority, whether self-imposed (like the divine Pharaoh of the Amarna age), or mutually agreed (as See also:

MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet and the Arabian clans).6 It cannot be definitely said that the old Babylonian code was in force in Palestine. On the other hand, it is known that it was being diligently copied by See also:

Assur-bani-pal's See also:

SCRIBES

scribes (7th century B.C.), and in view of the circumstances of the Assyrian domination, it is probable that, so far as Palestinian economic conditions permitted, a legislation more progressive than the Pentateuch Palastinas Erdgeruch in der Israel. Relig. (Berlin, 1909), pp. 16 sqq. In the above, and in other respects also, a survey of the history of Palestine suggests the necessity of modifying that " biological " treatment of the development of thought which pays insufficient See also:

ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the persistence of the representatives of different stages by the side of or after the disappearance of the higher stages; see I. King, op. cit., pp. 204 sqq. 5 Cf. J.-M.

See also:

LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813)

Lagrange, Hist. Grit. and the 0. T. (London, 1905), p. 176; H. M. Wiener, The Churchman (1908), p. 23. 5 See W. R. Smith, Rel. of Semites, p. 70, who compares the judicial authority of Moses.

Note also the See also:

BRITISH

British See also:

INDIAN

Indian legislation imposed upon the various castes and See also:

CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds each with their peculiar rites and customs. was in use. The discovery at Gezer of Assyrian See also:

contract-tablets (651 and 648 B.c.)—one relating to the sale of land by a certain Nethaniah--at least suggests the prevalence of Assyrian custom, and this is confirmed by the technical business methods illustrated in Jer. xxxii. Moreover, among the Jewish families settled in the 5th century B.C. in Egypt (Elephantine) and Babylonia (See also:

NIPPUR

Nippur), the Babylonian-Assyrian principles are in See also:

VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue, and the presumption that they were not unfamiliar in Palestine is strengthened further by the otherwise unaccountable appearance of Babylonian-Assyrian elements later in the Talmudic law. The denunciations in the prophetical writings of gross injustice, oppression and maladministration seem to presuppose definite laws, which either were ignored or which fell with severity upon the poor and unfortunate. They point to a considerable amount of written law, which was evidently class-legislation of an oppressive character.) The Babylonian code is essentially class-legislation, and from the point of view of the See also:

IDEALISM (from Gr. i5Ea, archetype or model, through been urged of the truth of its point of view is the persistency Fr. idealisme)

idealism of the Old Testament prophets, which raises the rights of humanity above everything else, the steps which the ` code takes to safeguard the rights of property (slaves included therein) would naturally seem harsh. The code also regulates See also:

WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

wages and prices, and shows a certain humanity towards debtors; and here any failure to carry out these laws would obviously be denounced. While the code, according to its own See also:

LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights, aims Prophets at strict justice rather than charity, the Old Testa- 'writhe ment has reforming aims, and the religious, legislative Law. and social ideals are characterized by the insistence upon a lofty moral and ethical standard. These ideals are more religious than democratic. The appeal of the prophets, " is not for better institutions but for better men, not for the abolition of aristocratic privileges but for an honest and godly use of them."2 The writers have in view a people with individual and collective rights and responsibilities, united by feelings of the deepest loyalty and kindliness and by common adherence to their only God. There is a marked growth of refinement and of ideas of morality, and a condemnation of the shameless See also:

VICE

vice and oppression which went on amid a punctilious and splendid worship. It is extremely significant that between the teaching of the prophetical writings and the spirit of the Mosaic legislation there is an unmistakable See also:

bond.

The Mosaic law, in its reforming aspect, is characterized by the denunciation of heathenism and heathenish usages which belong to the old religion. There is an insistence upon individual responsibility (Dent. xxiv. 16; 2 Kings xiv. 6; cf. Jer. xxxi. 29 seq.; Ezek. xviii., xxxiii.), the more noteworthy when one considers the tenacity of the See also:

savage tali() and its retention, though with some modifications, in the Babylonian code. There is a tendency to mitigate See also:

SLAVERY

slavery, and the law of fugitive slaves is a particularly instructive innovation (Dent. xxiii. 15 seq., subsequently confined to the slave from outside). See also:

CORPORAL

Corporal See also:

PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment is kept within limits (xxv. 3), but its very existence points to state-life rather than to the desert. Some attempt is made to diminish the destructiveness of war (xx. 10-20), but the passage is a remarkable illustration of a barbarous age.

The endeavour is also made to improve the monarchy of the future (xvii. 14 sqq.), but mainly on religious grounds, in order to diminish foreign intercourse. Noteworthy, again, is the appeal to religious and ethical considerations in order to prevent injustice to the widow and fatherless and to unhappy debtors; statutory laws are either unknown, or, more probably, are presupposed. The pentateuchal legislation as a whole is problems. placed at the very beginning of Israelite Mosaic code. national history. Amid constant periods of See also:

APOSTASY (aaoafiavis, in classical Greek a defection or revolt from a military commander)

apostasy two See also:

EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch-making events stand out: (a) the rediscovery of the Book of the Law (Deuteronomy is meant) in the time of Josiah (2 Kings xxii.) followed by a reform of sundry religious abuses dating from the foundation of the temple, and (b) the promulgation by Ezra of the Law of Yahweh, the law of Moses (Ezra. vii. 1o, 14; Neh. viii. 1), in the age of Nehemiah, at the very close of biblical history. This legislation, endorsing 1 O. C. Whitehouse, Century Bible, on Isa. x. 1 seq. 2 See W.

R. Smith, Old Test. in the See also:

JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew. See also:

Church (London, 1892), pp. 348, 350 seq. (in certain well-defined portions) priestly authority, excludes a monarchy and stands at the head of a lengthy development in the way of expansion and See also:

INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation. Its true place in biblical history has been the problem of generations of scholars,3 and the discovery (Dec. 1901-See also:

Jan. 1902) of the Babylonian code has brought new problems of relationship and of external influences. Although on various grounds there is a strong See also:

PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability that the code of Khammurabi must have been known in Palestine at some period, the Old Testament does not manifest such traces of the influence as might have been expected. Pentateuchal law is relatively unprogressive, it is marked by a characteristic simplicity, and by a spirit of reform, and the persisting primitive social conditions implied do not harmonize with other internal and external data. The existence of other laws, however, is to be presupposed, and there appear to be cases where the Babylonian code lies in the background. An independent authority concludes that " the co-existing likeness and differences argue for an independent recension of ancient custom deeply influenced by Babylonian law."4 The questions are involved with the reforming spirit in biblical religion and history.

On literary-historical grounds the Pentateuch in its present fofm is post-exilic, posterior to the old monarchies and to the ideals of the earlier prophetical writings. The laws are (a) partly contemporary collections (chiefly of a ritual and ceremonial character) and (b) partly collections of older and different origin, though now in post-exilic frames. r The antiquity of certain principles and details is undeniable—as also in the Talmud—but since one must start from the organic connexions of the composite sources, the problems necessitate proper attention to the relation between the stages in the literary growth (working backwards) and the vicissitudes which culminate in the post-exilic age. The simplicity of the legislation (traditionally associated with Moab and Sinai and with Kadesh in South Palestine), the humanitarian and reforming spirit, the condemnation of abuses and customs are features which, in view of the background and See also:

SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of Deuteronomy, can hardly be severed from the internal events which connect Palestine of the Assyrian supremacy with the time of Nehemiah.5 The introduction, spread and prominence of the name Yahweh, the development of conceptions concerning his nature, his supremacy over other gods and the lofty monotheism character which denied a See also:

PLURALITY (0. Fr. pluralitd, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural number)

plurality of gods, are questions of o. T. which, like the biblical legislative ideas, cannot be H%story• adequately examined within the narrow See also:

COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass of the Old Testament alone. The biblical history is a "canonical" history which looks back to the patriarchs, the See also:

exodus from Egypt, the law-giving and the covenant with Yahweh at Sinai, the conquest of Palestine by the Israelite tribes, the monarchy, the rival kingdoms, the fall and exile of the northern tribes, and, later, of the southern (Judah), and the reconstructions of Judah in the times of Cyrus, See also:

DARIUS (Pers. Darayavaush; Old Test. Daryavesh)

Darius and Artaxerxes. It is the first known example of continuous historical writing (Genesis to Kings, See also:

CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah), and represents a deliberate effort to go back from 3 See BIBLE: Old Test. Criticism; JEws, §§ 16, 23. 4 C. H. W. Johns, See also:

Hastings's Dict.

Bible, v. 611 seq., who points out that the intrusion of priestly power into the law courts is a recrudescence under changed conditions of a state of things from which the Babylonian code shows an emancipation nearly complete. The view formerly maintained by the present writer (Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi, 1903, pp. 204 sqq., 279 seq., &c.) relied upon the difference between the exilic or post-exilic sources which unambiguously reflect Babylonian and related ideas, and the absence in other biblical sources of the features which an earlier comprehensive Babylonian influence would have produced, and it incorrectly assumed that the explanation might be found in the ordinary reconstructions of Israelite history. Cf. above, p. 182, n. I. 5 On the later history of the canonical law (Mishnah, Gemara, &c.) see TALMUD. The Talmud embodies law, which is related to the Babylonian code not only in content but also sometimes in spirit; see L. N. Dembitz, Jew. Quart.

Rev. xix. (1906), pp. 109 sqq. For the efforts of the Rabbis to improve the legal principles in Galilee in the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D., see A. Bflchier, Publication No. 1, Jews' See also:

COLLEGE (Collegium)

College, London. With the removal of Judaism from Palestine and internal social changes the archaic primitive law re-appeared, now influenced, however, by Mahommedan legislation. the days when the Judaeans separated from the Samaritans to the very beginning of the world. A characteristic See also:

TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone pervades the history, even of the antediluvian age, from the creation of See also:

Adam; or rather, the history of the earliest times has been written under its influence. It reveals itself in the days of the Patriarchs, before the " Amarna " age—or rather in the narratives relating to these remote ancestors. It will be perceived that an See also:

OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective attitude to the subjective writings must be adopted, the starting-point is the writings themselves and not individual preconceptions of the authentic history which they embody. Although there are various points of contact with Palestinian external history, there is a failure to deal with some events of obvious importance, and an emphasis upon others which are less conspicuous in any broad survey of the land.

There are numerous conflicting details which unite to prove that various sources have been used, and that the structure of the compilation is a very intricate one, the steps in its growth being extremely obscure.- In studying the internal peculiarities and the different circles of thought involved, it is found that they often imply written traditions which have a perspective different from that in which they are now placed. As regards the pre-monarchical period, some evidence points to a See also:

settlement Pre- (apparently froth Aramaean localities) of the patri-Monarchicai archs, and of Israel (Jacob) and his sons, i.e. the Period. " See also:

CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children of Israel." It ignores a descent into Egypt and the subsequent invasion? The parallel account in the book of Joshua of the entrance of the " children of Israel " is, in its present form, the sequel to the See also:

JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey of the people along the east of See also:

EDAM

Edam and Moab after the See also:

ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape from Egypt, and after a sojourn at Kadesh (Exodus-Deuteronomy). But other evidence also points to an entrance from Kadesh into Judah, and associates the See also:

KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

kin of Moses, See also:

KENITES

Kenites, Calebites and others. Thus, the tradition of a See also:

RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence in Egypt, implied also in the stories of See also:

Joseph, has certainly become the " canonical " view, but the recollection was not shared by all the mixed peoples of Palestine; and to this difference of historical background in the traditions must be added divergent traditions of the earlier population. Traditions, oral and written, with widely differing standpoints have been brought together and merged. Moreover, the elaborate account of the vast invasion and conquest, the expulsion, extermination and subjugation of earlier inhabitants, and the occupation of cities and fields, combine to form a picture which cannot be placed in Palestine during the 15th–I2th centuries. It must not be denied that the recollection of some invasion may have been greatly idealized by late writers, but it happens that there were important immigrations and internal movements in the 8th–6th centuries, that is to say, immediately preceding the post-exilic age, when this composite account in the Pentateuch and Joshua reached its present form. An enormous See also:

gap severs the pre-monarchical period from this age, and while the tribal schemes and tribal traditions can hardly be traced during the monarchies, the inclusion of Judah among the " sons " of Israel would not have originated when Judah and Israel were rival kingdoms. Yet the tribes survive in post-exilic literature and their traditions develop henceforth in See also:

JUBILEES, BOOK OF

Jubilees, Testament of the XII Patriarchs, &c. During the changes from the 8th century onwards a non-monarchical constitution naturally prevailed, first in the north and then in the south, and while in the north the mingled peoples of Samaria came to regard themselves as Israelite, the southern portion, the tribe of Judah, proves in r Chron. ii.

& iv. to be largely of half-Edomite See also:

BLOOD

blood. A common ground previous to the Samaritan See also:

SCHISM

schism is ignored; it is found only in the period before the rival kingdoms. The political history of these - In the art. JEWS, §§ 1–24, the biblical history is taken as the foundation, and the internal historical difficulties are noticed from stage to stage. In the present state of biblical historical criticism this plan seemed more advisable than any attempt to reconstruct the history; the necessity for some reconstruction will, however, be clear to the reader on the grounds of both the internal intricacies and the external evidence. 2 See, in the first instance, E. Meyer (and B. See also:

LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546)

Luther), See also:

Die Israel-See also:

LIEN

lien and ihre Nachbarst¢mme (See also:

Halle, 1906) ; also art. GENESIS.monarchies in the book of Kings is singularly slight considering the extensive body of tradition which may be pre-supposed, e.g. for the reigns of Jeroboam II. and Uzziah, or which may be inferred from the evidence for different Monarchies. sources dealing with other periods. The scanty political data in the annalistic notices of the north kingdom are supplemented by more detailed narratives of a few years leading up to the rise of the last dynasty, that of Jehu. The historical problems involved point to a loss of perspective (JEWS, § II), and the particular interest in the stories of See also:

ELIJAH (a Hebrew name meaning " Yah[weh] is God ")

Elijah and See also:

ELISHA (a Hebrew name meaning " God is deliverance ")

Elisha in an historical work suggests that the political records passed through the hands of communities whose interest lay in these figures. Old tradition suggests the " schools of the prophets" at Jericho, See also:

GILGAL (Heb. for " circle " of sacred stones)

Gilgal and See also:

BETHEL (Heb. " House of God ")

Bethel, and in fact the proximity of these places, especially Bethel, to Judaean soil may be connected with the friendly and sometimes markedly favourable attitude to Judah in these narratives.

The rise of the kingdom of Israel under Saul is treated at length, but more prominence is given to the influence of the See also:

PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet See also:

SAMUEL

Samuel; and not only is Saul's history written from a didactic and prophetical standpoint (cf. similarly Ahab), but the great hero and ruler is handled locally as a petty king at Gibeah in See also:

Benjamin. The interest of the narratives clings around north Judah and Benjamin, and more attention is given to the rise of the Judaean dynasty, the hostility of Saul, and the romantic friendship between his soft See also:

Jonathan and the See also:

young David of Bethlehem. The history of the northern and southern kingdoms is handled separately in Kings; but in Samuel the rise of each is closely interwoven, and to the greater glory of David. The account of his steps contains details touching Judah and its relation to Israel which cannot be reconciled with certain traditions of Saul and the Ephraimite Joshua. It combines amid diverse material a hero of Bethlehem and rival of Saul with the idea of a conqueror of this district; it introduces peculiar traditions of the See also:

ARK (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Arche, adapted from the Lat. area, chest, cf. arcere, to shut up, enclose)„ a chest, basket or box. The Hebrew word tebah, translated in the' A.V. by " ark," is used in the Old Testament (1)

ark and sanctuary, and it associates David with Hebron, Calebites and the See also:

WILDERNESS

wilderness of Paran.3 The books of Samuel and Kings have become, in See also:

PROCESS

process of compilation, the natural sequel to the preceding books, but the conflicting features and the perplexing differences of standpoint recur elsewhere, and the relationship between them suggests that similar causes have been operative upon the compilation. The history of Judah is, broadly speaking, that of the Davidic dynasty and the Temple, and it begins at the time of the first king of the rival north. Care is taken to See also:

RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record the transference of secular power and of Yahweh's favour from Saul to David, and David accomplishes more successfully or on a larger scale the achievements ascribed to Saul. The religious superiority of Jerusalem over the idolatrous north and over the " high places " is the main theme, and with it is the supremacy of the native Zadokite priests of Jerusalem over others (e.g. of See also:

Shiloh), who are connected with the desert traditions. The political history is relatively slight and uneven, and the framework is rehandled in Chronicles upon more developed lines and from a later ecclesiastical stand-point, which suggests that many traditions of the monarchy were extant in a late dress. Both books represent the same general trend of political events, even where the " canonical " representation is most open to criticism. Chronicles, with the book of Ezra and Nehemiah, makes a continuity chronicles–between the old Judah which fell in 586 and the Ezra return (time of Cyrus), the rebuilding of the temple Nehemiah. (Darius), and the reorganization associated with Nehemiah and Ezra (Artaxerxes).

Historical material after 586 is scanty in the extreme, and, apart from the records of Nehemiah and a few other passages, the interest lies in the religious history of the communities and reformers who returned from Babylonia. The late and composite book of Chronicles places at the head of the Israelite divisions, which ignore the exodus (1 Chron. vii. 3 Whence the theory that David was of S. Judaean or S. Palestinian origin (Marquart, Winckler, See also:

CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY (1841— )

Cheyne, Ency. Bib. cols. 1020, 2613 seq.), and, also, that he knit together the southern nonjudaean clans (see DAVID, JUDAH). But it is preferable to recognize different traditions of distinct origin and to inquire what genuine elements of history each may contain. 14, 20-24), a Judah consisting of fragments of an older stock replenished with families of South Palestinian, Edomite and North Arabian See also:

affinity. This half-Edomite population, recognizable also in Benjamin, manifests its presence in the official lists, and more especially in the ecclesiastical bodies inaugurated by David, from whose time the supremacy of this Judah is dated. The historical framework contains traditions of the reconstruction and repair of temple and cult, of the hostility of southern peoples and their allies, and of conflicts between king and priests. This retrospect of the Judaean kingdom must be taken with the following books, where the crucial features are (a) the presence (L..

444) of an See also:

ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy, partly (at all events) of half-Edomite affinity, before the return of any important body of exiles (Neh. iii.); (b) the gaps in the history between the fall of Samaria (722) and Jerusalem (586) to the rise of the hierocracy, and (c) the relation between the hints of renewed political activity in Zerubbabel's time, when the Temple was rebuilt (c. 520-516), and the mysterious catastrophe (with perhaps another disaster to the Temple), probably due to Edom, which is implied in the book of Nehemiah (c. 444). (See JEws, § 22.) These data lead to the fundamental problem of Old Testament history. Since 187o (See also:

WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS (1844— )

Wellhausen's De gentibus . . . Judaeis) it has been recognized that 1 Chron. ii. and iv. accord with certain details in Samuel, and appear to refer to a half-Edomite Judah in David's time (c. r000 B.c.).1 More recently E. Meyer, on the basis of a larger See also:

INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction, has pointed out the relation of this Judah to a large group of Edomite or Edomite-Ishmaelite tribes? The stories in Genesis represent a southern treatment of Palestinian tradition, with local and southern versions of legends and myths, and with interests which could only belong to the south .3 It has long been perceived that Kadesh in South Palestine was connected with a law-giving and with some separate movement into Judah of clans associated with the family of Moses, See also:

CALEB (Heb. keleb, " dog ")

Caleb, Kenites, &c. (see EXODUS, THE). With this it is natural to connect the transmission and presence in the Old Testament of specifically Kenite tradition, of the " southern " stories in Genesis, and of the stories of See also:

Levi.4 The rise of this new Judah is generally attributed to David, but the southern clans remain independent for some five centuries, only moving a few See also:

MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles nearer Jerusalem; and this vast See also:

INTERVAL

interval severs the old half-Edomite or Arabian Judah from the sequel—the association of such names as Korah, Ethan and Heman with temple-See also:

psalms and psalmody.5 It has long been agreed that biblical religion and history are indebted in some way to groups connected with Edom and North Arabia, and repeated endeavours have been made to explain the evidence in its bearing upon this lengthy periods The problem, it is here suggested, is in the first instance a literary one—the literary treatment by southern groups, who have become Israelite, of a lengthy period of history. When the whole body of evidence is viewed comprehensively, it would seem that there was some movement northwards of semi-Edomite blood, tradition and literature, the date of which may be placed during the internal disorganization of Palestine, and presumably in the 6th century.

Such a movement is in keeping with the course of Palestinian history from the traditional entrance of the Israelite tribes to the relatively recent See also:

MIGRATION

migration of the tribe 1 " The population of South Judah was of half-Arab origin " (W. R. Smith, Old Test. Jew. Church, p. 299). 2 Meyer and Luther, op. cit., p. 446, et passim. 3 So especially Meyer and Luther, op. cit.; cf. also H. Gressmann, Zeit. f. alt-test. Wissens. (1910), p.

28 seq. Note also the view that the See also:

GRAND

grand book of See also:

Job (q.v.) has an Edomite background. 4 A. R. See also:

Gordon, Early Traci. of Gen. (London, 1907), pp. 74, 188; Meyer, op. cit., pp. 83, 85 (on the See also:

LEVITES

Levites) ; Gressmann, loc. cit. ; S. A. Cook, Amer. Journ. of Theol.

(1909), pp. 382 sqq. See GENESIS, LEVITES, and JEWS, § 20. 5 On the names, see See also:

GENEALOGY (from the Gr. yivos, family, and Vryos, theory)

GENEALOGY: Biblical; LEVITES, § 2, end, and Ency. Bib. See also:

col. 1665 seq. 8 W. R. Harper (Amos and See also:

HOSEA

Hosea, 1905, p. liv.) observes: "Every year since the work of W. R. Smith brings Israel into closer relation-See also:

SHIP

ship with Arabia "; cf. also N. See also:

Schmidt's conclusions (Hibbert See also:

Journal, 1908, p.342), and the Jerahmeelite theory of T.

K. Cheyne, who writes (Decline and Fall of the Kingdom of Judah, Londor 1908, p. See also:

XXXVII

xxxvii.) . by far the greater part of the extant literary monuments of ancient Israel are precisely those monuments whose producers were most preoccupied by N. Arabia."of 'Amr.7 In the Old Testament popular feeling knows of two phases: Edom, the more powerful See also:

BROTHER

brother of Jacob (or Israel) —both could share in the traditions of See also:

ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham, See also:

ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

Isaac and Jacob—and the hatred of the treacherous Edom in the prophetical writings. Earlier phases have not survived, and the last-mentioned is relatively late,8 after the southern influence; had left itself upon history, See also:

LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend, the Temple and the ecclesiastical bodies. On these grounds, then, it would seem that among the vicissitudes of the 8th and following centuries may be placed a movement of the greatest importance for Israelite history and for the growth of the Old Testament, one, however, which has been reshaped and supplemented (in the account of the Exodus and Invasion) and deliberately suppressed or ignored in the history of the age (viz. in Ezra-Nehemiah). The unanimous recognition on the part of all biblical scholars that the Old Testament cannot be taken as it stands as a See also:

TRUST

trust-worthy account of the history with which it deals, necessitates a See also:

HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis or, it may be, a series of hypotheses, which shall enable one to approach the more detailed study of its history and religion. The curious and popular tradition that Ezra rewrote the Old Testament (2 Esd. xiv.), the concessions of conservative scholars, and even the view that the Hebrew text is too uncertain for literary criticism, indicate that the starting-point of inquiry must be the present form of the writings. The necessary work of literary See also:

ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis reached its most definite stage in the now famous hypothesis of See also:

Graf (1865—1866) and especially Wellhausen (1878), which was made more widely known to See also:

ENGLISH

English readers, directly and indirectly through W. See also:

Robertson Smith, in the 9th edition of this See also:

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

Encyclopaedia? The work of literary criticism and its application to biblical history and religion passed into A. new stage as external evidence accumulated, and, more particularly since 1900, the problems have assumed new shapes. The tendency has been to assign more of the Old Testament, in its present form, to the Persian age and later; and also to work upon lines which are influenced sometimes by the close agreement with Oriental conditions generally and sometimes by the very striking divergences. It is the merit of See also:

Hugo Winckler especially to have lifted biblical study out of the somewhat narrow lines upon which it had usually proceeded, but, at the time of writing (1910), Old Testament criticism still awaits a See also:

sound reconciliation of the admitted internal intricacies and of the external evidence for Palestine and that larger area of which it forms part.

Upon the convergence of the manifold lines of investigation rest all reconstructions, all methodical studies of biblical religion, law and prophecy, and all endeavours to place the various developments in an adequate historical framework. The preliminary hypotheses, it would seem, must be both literary and historical. The varied standpoints (historical, social, legal, religious, &c.) combine with the fragmentary character preliminary of much of the evidence to suggest that the literature iaypotheses. has passed through different circles, with excision or revision of older material, and with the See also:

INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

incorporation of other material, sometimes of older origin and of independent literary growth. Consequently, one is restricted in the first instance to such literature as survives and in the form which the last editors or compilers gave it. Different views as regards history (e.g. invasions, tribal movements, rival kingdoms) and religion (e.g. the Yahweh of Kadesh, Sinai, Jerusalem, &c.), and different priestly, prophetical and popular ideas are only to be expected, consideripg the character of Palestinian population. Hence to weave the data into a single historical outline or into an orderly evolution of thought is to overlook the probability of See also:

bona 1J. Dissard, Rev. Bibl., 1905, pp. 410-425. Some S. Pal. rev—oft is also reflected shortly before the rise of the Jehu dynasty (JEws, § II). A few centuries later, the Edomites (Idumaeans) were again closely connected with the Jews; an Idumaean dynasty—that of the Herods—ruled in Judah, and once more there must have been a considerable amount of intermixture.

8 Cf. R. H. Kennett, Journ. Theol. Stud. (1906), p. 487; Camb. Bibl. Essays (ed. Swete), p. 117.

For an Edomite invasion between 586 and the Greek period, see also H. Winckler, Altor. Forsch. (1900), PP. 428 sqq., 4555:. 9 Especially Welihausen's articles, " Pentateuch," " Israel,' " Moab," and W. R. Smith's large series including " Bible," " David," " See also:

DECALOGUE (in patristic Gr. 7] SercaXoyos, sc. (3i(3)tos or vopoGevia)

Decalogue," " Judges," " Kings," " Levites," " See also:

MESSIAH (Dan. x. 25, 26)

Messiah," " Priest," " Prophet," " Psalms," &c. Trend of Criticism. fide divergences of tradition and to assume that more rudimentary or primitive thought was excluded by the admitted development of religious-social ideals. The oldest See also:

NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of historical tradition appears to belong to Samaria, but it has been adjusted to other standpoints or interests, which are apparently connected partly with the half-Edomite and partly with the old indigenous Judaean stock.' Genesis–Kings (incomplete; some further material in Jeremiah) and the later Chronicles—Nehemiah are in their present form posterior to Nehemiah's time. Unfortunately the events of his age are shrouded in obscurity, but one can recognize the return of exiles from Babylon to Jerusalem and its environs—now half-Edomite—and various internal rivalries which culminate in the Samaritan schism?

The ecclesiastical rivalries have left their mark in the Pentateuch and (the later) Chronicles, and the Samaritan See also:

SECESSION

secession appears to have coloured even the book of Kings. These sources then are " post-exilic," and the elimination of material first composed in that age leaves historical, legal and other material which was obviously in circulation (so, e.g., the non-priestly portions of Genesis).3 The relatively earlier group of books is now the result of two complicated and continuous redactions, " Deuteronomic " (Deut.–Kings) and " Priestly " (Genesis .Joshua, with traces in the following books). The former is exceptionally intricate, being in its various aspects distinctly earlier, and in parts even later than the " priestly." Its standpoint, too, varies, the phases being now northern or wider Israelite, now half-Edomite or Judaean, and now anti-Samarian. Moreover, there is a late incorporation of literature, sometimes untouched by and sometimes merely approximating to " Deuteronomic " language or thought. How very late the historical books are in their present text or form may be seen from the See also:

SEPTUAGINT, THE (Gr. of 0', Lat. LXX.)

Septuagint version of Joshua, Samuel and Kings, and from their internal literary structure, which suggests that only at the last stages of compilation were they brought into their present shape." The result as a whole tends to show that the " canonical " history belongs to the last literary vicissitudes, and that similar influences (which have not affected every book in the same manner) have been at work throughout. The history of the past is viewed from rather different positions which, on the whole, are subsequent to the relatively recent changes 1Qeshaplog that gave birth to new organizations in Samaria and of Tead7- Judah. Consequently, in 'addition to the ordinary requiret3on. ments of historical criticism, biblical study has to take into account the intricate composite character of the sources and the background of these positions. It is the criticism of sources which have both a literary and an historical compositeness. Not only are the standpoints of local interest (Samaria, Benjamin, Judah and the half-Edomite Judah being involved), but there are remarkable developments in the ecclesiastical bodies (Zadokites of Jerusalem, country and half-Edomite priests, Aaronites) which have influenced both the writing and the revision of the sources (see LEVI'rES). Yet it is noteworthy that the traditions are usually reshaped, readjusted or reinterpreted, and are not replaced by entirely new ones. Thus, the Samaritans claim the traditions of the land; the Chronicler traces the connexion between " pre-exilic " and " post-exilic " Judaeans, ignoring and obscuring intervening events; the south Palestinian See also:

cycle of tradition is adapted to the history of a descent into and an exodus from Egypt; Zadokite priests are enrolled as Aaronites, and the hierarchical traditions 1 A Samarian (or Ephraimite or N. Israelite) nucleus may be recognized in the books of Joshua–Kings; see the articles on these books, JEWS, § 6; cf.

Meyer, pp. 478 n. 2, 486 seq., and K. Lincke, Samaria u. See also:

seine Propheten (1903), p. 24. These preserve old poetical literature (Judg. v., 2 Sam. i.), stories of conquest and settlement, and they connect with the See also:

LITURGY (Low Lat. liturgia; Gr. X€Zros, public, and Epyov, work; )Aetrovpy6s, a public servant)

liturgy in Deut, xxvii, Joshua's covenant at Shechem and the Shechemite covenant-god (cf. Kennett, Journ. Theol. Stud., 1906, pp. 495 sqq. ;.Lincke, op. cit., p. 89.

W. Erbt, Die Hebrfier (1906), pp. 27 sqq. ; Meyer and Luther, pp. 542 sqq., 55o seq.). ' There seems to be both political and religious animosity, but it is not certain that See also:

JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (c. 37-C. 95?)

Josephus is wrong in placing the schism at the close of the Persian period; see, on this point, J. Marquart, Isr. u. lad. Gesch. (1896), p. 57 seq.; C. Steuernagel, Theolog. Stud. u.

Krit. (1909), p. 5; G. See also:

Jahn, See also:

BUCHER, LOTHAR (1817–1892)

Bucher Esra u. Nehemia (See also:

LEIDEN

Leiden, I9o9), pp. 173-176; C. C. See also:

TORREY, JOHN (1796—1873)

Torrey, Ezra Studies (Chicago, 1910), pp. 321 sqa. Old priestly rivalries between Cutha and Babylon may explain why the mixed Samaritans became known as Cuthaeans; according to the prevailing theory their predecessors, the " ten tribes " had been exiled in the 8th century. 3 The term " post-exilic " is applied to literature and history after the return of exiles and the religious reconstruction of Judah. This, on the traditional view, would be in 537, if there were then any prominent return.

Failing this, one must descend to the time of Nehemiah, which the biblical history itself regards as epoch-making. The tendency to make the exile an abrupt and complete change in life is based upon the theory underlying Chronicles–Nehemiah and is misleading (see Torrey, op. cit. pp. 287 sqq., &c.). Cf. the " Deuteronomic " form of Samuel, and the dependence of the literary growth of Genesis and the account of the exodus and invasion of Palestine upon the " southern " cycle of tradition.reveal stages of orderly and active development in order to authorize the changing standpoints of different periods and circles.' This feature recurs in later Palestinian literature (see See also:

MIDRASH

MIDRASH, TALMUD) where there are later forms of thought and tradition, some elements of which although often of older origin, are almost or entirely wanting in the Old Testament. Much that would otherwise be unintelligible becomes more clear when one realizes the readiness with which settlers adopt the traditional belief and custom of a land, and the psychological fact that teaching must be relevant and must satisfy the See also:

PRIMARY

primary religious feelings and aspirations, that it must not be at entire variance with current beliefs, but must represent the older beliefs in a new form. Any comparison of the treatment of biblical figures or events in the later literature will illustrate the retention of certain old details, the appearance of new ones, and an organic connexion which is everywhere in accordance with contemporary thought and teaching. If this raises the presumption that even the oldest and most isolated biblical evidence may rest upon still older authority, it shows also that the fuller details and context cannot be confidently recovered, and that earlier forms would accord with earlier Palestinian beliefs Hence, although records may be most untrustworthy in their present form or connexion, one cannot necessarily deny that a See also:

ROMANCE

romance may presuppose a reality of history or that it may preserve the fact of an event even at the period to which it is ascribed (e.g. Abraham and Amraphel in Gen: xiv.; the invasions before 1000 B.C., &c.). But in all such cases the present form of the material may be more profitably used for the study of the historical or religious conceptions of its age. At the same time, the complexity of the vicissitudes of traditions, exemplified in modern Palestine itself, cannot be ignored.' Finally, biblical history is an intentional and reasoned arrangement of material, based upon composite sources, for religious and didactic purposes. Regarded as an historical work there is a remarkable absence of proportion, and a loss of perspective in the relation between antediluvian, patriarchal, Mosaic and later periods. From the literary-critical results, however, it is not so much the history of consecutive periods as the account of consecutive periods by compilers who are not far removed from one another as regards See also:

DATES

dates, but differ in standpoints.

There was, in one case, a retrospect which did not include the deluge, and in another the patriarchs were actual settlers, a descent into Egypt and subsequent exodus being ignored; moreover, the standpoints of those who did not go into exile and of those who did and returned would naturally differ. In weaving the sources together the compilers had some acquaintance of course with past history, but on the whole it manifests itself only slightly (see JEWS, § 24), and the complete See also:

CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological system belongs to the latest stage. Investigation must concern itself not with what was possibly or probably known, but with what is actually presented. The fact remains that when accepted tradition conflicts with more reliable evidence it stands upon a level by itself ; 8 and it is certain that a compilation based upon the knowledge which modern research—whether in the exact sciences or in history—has gained would have neither meaning for nor influence upon the people whom it was desired to instruct. A considerable amount of earlier history and literature has been lost, and it is probable that the traditions of the origins of the composite Israelites, as they are now preserved, embody evidence belonging to the nearer events of the 8th–6th centuries. The history of these centuries is of fundamental importance in any attempt to " reconstruct " biblical history.' The fall of Samaria and Judah was a literary as well as a political catastrophe, and precisely how much earlier material has been ' Cf. S. A. Cook, Critical Notes on Old Testament History (1907), pp. 62 seq., 67, 75 sqq., 112 seq. ' This applies also to the prophetical writings, the study of which is complicated by their use of past history to give point to later ideas and by the recurrence in history of somewhat similar events. As regards the situations which presuppose the ruin of Jerusalem and a return of exiles, the obscure events after the time of Zerubbabel cannot be left out of account.

(See JEWS, §§ 14, 17 [p. 282], 22 n. 5, and art. See also:

ZEPHANIAH

ZEPHANIAH.) Note the rapid growth and embellishment of tradition, the inextricable interweaving of fact and fiction, the circumstantial or rationalized stories of imaginary beings, the supernatural or mythical stories of thoroughly historical persons, the absolute loss of perspective, and a reliance not upon the merits of a tradition but upon the authority with which it is associated. 8 Cf. the remarkable Arabian stories of their predecessors, or the mingling of accurate and inaccurate data in See also:

MANETHO (Mav40cov in an inscription of Carthage; MaveBees in a papyrus)

Manetho and See also:

CTESIAS

Ctesias. The evidence for Jewish colonies at Elephantine in Upper Egypt (5th century B.C.) has opened up new paths for inquiry. According to some scholars it is probable that they were descended from the soldiers settled by Psamtek I. (7th century), and not only are they in See also:

TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch with Judah and Samaria, but in Psamtek's time an effort was made by the Asiatic and other mercenaries to escape into See also:

ETHIOPIA, or AETHIOPIA (Gr. AlOtoaia)

Ethiopia (J. H. Breasted, Eg hist. doc. iv. 506 seq.). It is already suggested that allusions to a sojourn in Egypt may refer, not to the remote times of Jacob and Moses but to the circumstances of the 7th century ; see C.

Steuernagel, op. cit. pp. 7-12; E. Meyer, Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin See also:

Academy, June 1908, p. 655. n. I. preserved is a problem in itself. It is very noteworthy, however, that, while no care was taken to preserve the history of the Chaldean and Persian Empires—and consequently the most confused ideas subsequently arose—the days of the Assyrian supremacy leave a much clearer imprint (cf. even the apocryphal book of See also:

TOBIT, THE BOOK OF

Tobit). It may perhaps be no mere See also:

CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance that with the dynasties of Omri and Jehu the historical continuity is more See also:

FIRM

firm, that older forms of prophetical narrative are preserved (the times from Ahab to Jehu), and that to the reign of the great Jeroboam (first half of the 8th century), the canonical writers have ascribpd the earliest of the extant prophetical writings (Amos and Hosea). External evidence for Palestine, in emphasizing the necessity for a reconsideration of the serious difficulties in the Old Testament, and in illustrating at once its agreement and still more See also:

SUMMARY

Summary. perplexing disagreement with contemporary conditions, furnishes a more striking See also:

PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of its uniqueness and of its permanent value. The Old Testament preserves traces of forgotten history and legend, of strange Oriental See also:

MYTHOLOGY

mythology, and the remains of a semi-heathenish past. " Canonical " history, legislation and religion assumed their present forms, and, while the earlier stages can cnly incompletely be traced, the book stands at the head of subsequent literature, paving the way for Christianity and Rabbinical Judaism, and influencing the growth of Mahommedanism. In leaving the land of its birth it has been taken as a whole, and for many centuries has been regarded as an infallible record of divinely granted knowledge and of divinely shaped history.

During what 1s relatively a very brief period deeper inquiry and newer knowledge have forced a slow, painful but steady readjustment of religious convictions. While the ideals and teaching of the Old Testament have always struck a responsive chord, scientific knowledge of the evolution of man, of the world's history and of man's place in the universe, constantly reveals the difference between the value of the old Oriental See also:

LEGACY (Lat. legatum)

legacy for its influence upon the development of mankind and the unessential character of that which has had inevitably to be relinquished. Yet, wonderful as the Old Testament has ever seemed to past generations, it becomes far more profound a phenomenon when it is viewed, not in its own perspective of the unity of history—from the time of Adam, but in the history of Palestine and of the old Oriental area. It enshrines the result of certain influences, the teaching of certain truths, and the acquisition of new conceptions of the relations between man and man, and man and God. Man's primary religious feeling seeks to bring him into association with the events and persons of his race, and that which in the Old Testament appears most perishable, most defective, and which suffers most under critical inquiry, was necessary in order to adapt new teaching to the commonly accepted beliefs of a bygone and primitive people.' The place of the Old Testament in the general See also:

EDUCATION

education of the world is at the close of one era and at the beginning of another. After a lengthy development in the history of the human race a definite stage seems to have been reached about 5000 B.C., which step by step led on to those great ancient cultures (Egyptian, Aegean, Babylonian) which surrounded Pales-tine.' These have influenced all subsequent civilization, and it was impossible that ancient Palestine could have been isolated from contemporary thought and history. After reaching an astonishing height (roughly 2500–1500 B.c.) these civilizing powers slowly decayed, and we reach the middle of the first millennium B.c.—the age which is associated with the " Deutero–Isaiah " (Isa. xl.–lv.), with Cyrus and Zoroaster, with See also:

BUDDHA

Buddha and See also:

CONFUCIUS [K'ung tsze] (550 or 551-478 B.C.)

Confucius, and with See also:

PHOCYLIDES

Phocylides and See also:

SOCRATES

Socrates.' This age, which comes midway between the second Egyptian dynasty (c. 3000 B.c.) and the present day, connects the decline of the old Oriental empires with the rise of the Persians, Greeks and See also:

Romans. In both Babylonia and Egypt it was an age of revival, but there was no longer any vitality in the old soil. In Palestine, on the other hand, the downfall of the old monarchies and the infusion of new blood gave fresh life to the land. There had indeed been previous immigrations, but the passage from the desert into the midst of Palestinian culture led to the See also:

ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of the old semi-heathenism of the land, a declension, and a descent from the relative simplicity of tribal life.' Now, however, the political conditions were favourable, and for a time Palestine could work out its own development. In these vicissitudes which led to the growth of the Old Testament, in its preservation among a devoted people, and in the results which have ensued down to to-day, it is impossible not to believe that the history of the past, with its manifold evolutions of thought and action, points the way to the religion of the future.

(S. A. C.) ' Cf. P. See also:

Gardner, Hist. View of New Test. (1904) 26, 44, sqq. 2 See Meyer's interesting remarks, Gesch. d. Alt. i. §§ 592 sqq. 'Cf. A.

P. See also:

Stanley, Jewish Church (1865), Lectures xlv. seq.; A. Jeremias, Monoth. Stromungen (Leipzig, 1904), p. 43 seq. Among the developments in Greek thought of this period, especially interesting for the Old Testament is the teaching associated with Phocylides of See also:

MILETUS (mod. Palatia)

Miletus; see Lincke, Samaria, pp. 47 seq. ' Cf. G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. pp.

85 sqq., also the Arab historian See also:

Ibn Khaldun on the effects of civilization upon Arab tribes (see e.g. R. A. See also:

Nicholson, Lit. Hist. of the See also:

ARABS

Arabs [London, 19071, pp. 439 sqq.) II. From Alexander the Great to A.D. 70. After the taking of Tyre Alexander decided to advance upon Egypt. With the exception of Gaza, the whole of Syria Palaestine (as it was called) had made its submission. Alexander That—in summary form—is the narrative of the the Ciredt. Greek historian See also:

ARRIAN (FLAvrus ARRIANUS)

Arrian (See also:

ANABASIS

Anabasis, ii.

25). Apart from the facts contained in this statement, the phraseology is of some importance, as the district of " Palestinian Syria " clearly includes more than the territory of the Philistines, which the See also:

ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective properly denotes (Josephus, Antiquities, i. 6, 2, xiii. v. io). From the military point of view—and Arrian drew upon the See also:

MEMOIRS

memoirs of two of Alexander's lieutenants—the significant thing was that not merely was the coast route from Tyre to Gaza open, but also there was no danger of a flank attack as the expeditionary force proceeded. Palestinian Syria, in fact, is here synonymous with what is commonly called Palestine. Similarly Josephus quotes from See also:

HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus the statement that the Syrians in Palestine are circumcised and profess to have learned the practice from the Egyptians (C. Apionem, i. 22, §§ 169, 171, Niese); and he comments that the Jews are the only inhabitants of Palestine who do so. These two examples of the wider use of the adjective and noun seem to testify to the forgotten predominance of the Philistines in the land of Canaan. But, in spite of the statement and silence of Arrian, Jewish tradition, as reported by Josephus (Ant. xi. 8, 3 sqq.), represents the high priest at Jerusalem as refusing Alexander's offered alliance and See also:

REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request for supplies. The Samaritans—the Jews ignored in their records all other inhabitants of Palestine—courted his favour, but the Jews kept faith with Darius so long as he lived.

Consequently a visit to Jerusalem is interpolated in the journey from Tyre to Gaza; and, Alexander, contrary to all expectation, is made to respect the high priest's passive resistance. He had seen his figure in a See also:

DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream; and so he sacrificed to God according to his direction, inspected the book of See also:

Daniel, and gave them—and at their request the Jews of Babylon and Media—leave, to follow their own laws. The Samaritans were prompt to claim like privileges, but were forced to confess that, though they were Hebrews, they were called the Sidonians of Shechem and were not Jews. The whole story seems to be merely a dramatic setting of the fact that in the new age inaugurated by Alexander the Jews enjoyed religious See also:

LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty. The Samaritans are the villains of the piece. But it is possible that Palestinian Jews accompanied the expedition as guides or exerted their influence with Jews of the See also:

Dispersion on behalf of Alexander. It appears from this tradition that the Jews of Palestine occupied little more than Jerusalem. There were kings of Syria in the See also:

TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train of Alexander who thought he was mad when he bowed before the high priest. We may draw the inference that they formed an insignificant See also:

ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning " also," " likewise ")

item in the population of a small province of the Persian Empire, and yet doubt whether they did actually refuse—alone of all the inhabitants of Palestine —to submit to the conqueror of the whole. At any See also:

RATE

rate they came into line with the rest of Syria and were included in the province of Coele-Syria, which extended from the See also:

TAURUS (" the Bull ")

Taurus and Lebanon range to Egypt. The province was entrusted first of all to See also:

PARMENIO (c. 400-330 B.C.)

Parmenio (See also:

Curtius iv. 1, 4) and by him handed over to Andromachus (Curtius iv.

5, 9). In 331 B.C. the Samaritans rebelled and burned Andromachus alive (Curtius iv. 8, 9): Alexander came up from Egypt, punished the rebels, and settled Macedonians in their city. The loyalty of the Jews he rewarded by granting them Samaritan territory See also:

FREE

free of tribute—according to a statement attributed by Josephus (c. Apionem, ii. § 43, Niese) to Hecataeus. After the death of Alexander (323 B.c.) See also:

PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy Lagi, who became See also:

SATRAP [Pers. Khshatrapavan, i.e." protector (superintendent) of the country (or district)," Heb. sakhshadrapan, Gr. taerpan-ris (insc. of Miletus, Sitzungsber. Berl. Ak. 1900, 112), E% u3pa7eixav (insc. of Mylasa, Dittenberger, Sylloge, 95), ital. p6. rr

satrap and then king of Egypt by right of conquest (Diodorus xviii. 39), invaded Coele-Syria in 320 B.C. Ptolemyi Then or after the See also:

BATTLE

battle of Gaza in 312 B.C. Ptolemy was opposed by the Jews and entered Jerusalem by taking advantage of the See also:

SABBATH

Sabbath rest (See also:

AGATHARCHIDES, or AGATHARCHUS

Agatharchides ap. Jos. c. Apionem i.

22, §§ 209 seq.; cf. Ant. xii. 1, 1). Whenever this occupation took place, Ptolemy became See also:

MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of Palestine in 312 B.C., and though, as Josephus complains, he may have disgraced his title, See also:

SOTER

Soter, by momentary severity at the outset, later he created in the minds of the Jews the impression that in Palestine or in Egypt he was—in See also:

DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed as well as in name—their preserver. Since 315 B.C. Palestine had been occupied by the forces of Antigonus. Ptolemy's successful forward movement was undertaken by the See also:

ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice of Seleucus (Diodorus xix. 8o sqq.), who followed it up by regaining possession of Babylonia. So the Seleucid era began in 312 B.C. (cf. See also:

Maccabees, i. ro) and the dynasty of Seleucus justified the " prophecy " of Daniel (xi. 2) : " And the king of the south (Ptolemy) shall be strong, but one of his captains (Seleucus) shall be strong above him and have dominion " (see SELEUCID DYNASTY).

Abandoned by his See also:

CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain and future rival, Seleucus, Ptolemy retired and left Palestine to Antigonus for ten years. In 302 B.C., by terms of his alliance with Seleucus, See also:

LYSIMACHUS (c. 355—281 B.C.)

Lysimachus and See also:

Cassander, he set out with a considerable force and subdued all the cities of Coele-Syria (Diodorus xx. 113). A rumour of the defeat of his allies sent him back from the siege of Sidon into Egypt, and in the See also:

PARTITION

partition of the empire, which followed their victory over Antigonus at Issus, he was ignored. But when Seleucus came to claim Palestine as part of his share, he found his old chief Ptolemy•in possession and retired under protest. From 301 B.C.–198 B.C. Palestine remained, with short interruptions, in the hands of the See also:

PTOLEMIES

Ptolemies. Of Palestine, as it was during this century of Egyptian domination, there is much to be learned from the traditions, reported by Josephus (Ant. xii. 4), in which the Joseph, sod of Tobiah. career of Joseph, the son of Tobiah, is glorified as the means whereby the national misfortunes were rectified. This Joseph was the See also:

NEPHEW

nephew of Onias, son of See also:

Simon the Righteous, and high priest. Onias is described—in order to enhance the glory of Joseph—as a man of small intelligence and deficient in wealth. In consequence of this deficiency he failed to pay the tribute due from the people to Ptolemy, as his fathers had done, and is set down by Josephus as a See also:

MISER

miser who cared nothing for the protest of Ptolemy's See also:

SPECIAL

special See also:

AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador.

Considering the character of Joseph as it was revealed by prosperity, one is tempted to find other explanations of his conduct than avarice. It is clearly indicated that the Jews as a whole were poor, and it is admitted that Onias was not wealthy. Perhaps it was the Sabbatical year, when no tribute was due. Perhaps Onias would not draw upon the sacred treasure in order to pay tribute to Ptolemy. In any case Joseph borrowed money from his See also:

friends in Samaria; and this point in the story proves that the Jews were supposed to have dealings with the Samaritans at the time and could require of them the last proof of friendship. Armed with his borrowed money, Joseph betook himself to Egypt; and there outbid the magnates of Syria when the taxes of the province were put up to See also:

AUCTION

auction. He had gained the See also:

EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear of the king by entertaining his ambassador, and the representatives of the cities—the Greek cities of Syria—were discomfited. The king gave him troops and he borrowed more money from the king's friends. When he began to collect taxes he was met with refusal and insult at See also:

ASCALON

Ascalon and at Scythopolis, but he executed the chief men of each city and sent their goods to the king. Warned by these examples, the Syrians opened their See also:

GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates to him and paid their taxes. For twenty-two years he held his See also:

OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office and was to all intents and purposes See also:

GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of Syria, Phoenicia and Samaria—" A good man " (Josephus calls him) " and a man of mind, who rescued the people of the Jews from poverty and weakness, and set them on the way to See also:

COMPARATIVE

comparative splendour " (Ant. xii. 4, 10).

The story illustrates the rise of a wealthy class among the Jews of Palestine, to whom the tolerant and distant See also:

RULE

rule of the Ptolemies afforded wider opportunities. At the beginning it is said that the Samaritans were prosperous and persecuted the Jews, but this Jewish hero embracing his opportunities reversed the situation and presumably paid the tribute due from the Jews by exacting more from the non-Jewish inhabitants of his province. He is a type of the Jews who embraced the Greek way of lifeas it was lived at See also:

Alexandria; but his influence in Palestine was insidious rather than actively subversive of Judaism. It was different when the Jews who wished to be men of the world took their See also:

Hellenism from the Seleucid court and courted the favour of See also:

ANTIOCHUS

Antiochus Epiphanes. Halfway through this century (249 B.C.) the desultory warfare between Egypt and the Seleucid power came to a temporary end (See also:

Dan. xi. 6). Ptolemy II. Philadelphus gave his daughter See also:

Berenice with a great See also:

DOWRY (in Anglo-Fr. dowarie, O. Fr. douaire, Med. Lat. dotaria, from Lat. dos; from root of dare, to give; in Fr. dot)

dowry to Antiochus II. Theos. When Ptolemy died (247 B.C.), Antiochus' divorced wife Laodice was restored to favour, and Antiochus died suddenly in order that she might regain her power. Berenice and her son were likewise removed from the path of her son Seleucus. In the vain See also:

hope of protecting his See also:

SISTER

sister Berenice, the new king of Egypt, Ptolemy III.

Eugeretes I., invaded the Seleucid territory, "entered the fortress of the king of the north " (Dan. xi. 7 sqq.), and only returned—laden with spoils, images captured from Egypt by See also:

Cambyses, and captives (See also:

Jerome on Daniel loc. cit.)—to put down a domestic See also:

REBELLION

rebellion. Seleucis reconquered northern Syria without much difficulty (See also:

JUSTIN (JUNIANUS JUSTINUS)

Justin xxxvii. 2, 1), but on an attempt to seize Palestine he was signally defeated by Ptolemy (Justin xxvii. 2, 4). In 223 B.C. Antiochus III. the Great came to the See also:

THRONE

throne of the Seleucid Empire and set about extending its boundaries in different directions. His first attempt on Palestine (221 B.C.) failed; the second succeeded by the ant/o- ctrus treachery of Ptolemy's See also:

LIEUTENANT

lieutenant, who had been recalled to Alexandria in consequence of his successful resistance to the earlier invasion. But in spite of this assistance the conquest of Coele-Syria was not quickly achieved; and when Antiochus advanced in 218 B.C. he was opposed by the Egyptians on land and sea. Nevertheless he made his way into Palestine, planted garrisons at Philoteria on the Sea of Galilee and Scythopolis, and finally stormed Rabbath-ammon (Philadelphia) which was held by partisans of Egypt. Early in 217 B.C. Ptolemy Philopater led his forces towards Raphia, which with Gaza was now in the hands of Antiochus, and drove the invaders back.

The great multitude was given into his hand, but he was not to be strengthened permanently by his See also:

TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph (Dan. xi. 11 sqq.). See also:

POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius describes his triumphal progress (v. 86) : " All the cities vied with one another in returning to their allegiance. The inhabitants of those parts are always ready to accommodate themselves to the situation of the moment and prompt to pay the courtesies required by the occasion. And in this case it was natural enough because of their deep-seated See also:

AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection for the royal See also:

house of Alexandria." When Ptolemy Philopater died in 205 B.C., Antiochus and See also:

Philip of Macedon, his nominal friends, made a See also:

SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret compact for the division of his possessions outside Egypt. The time had come of which Daniel (xi. 13 sqq.) says: " The king of the north shall return after certain years with a great See also:

army and with much riches. And in those times there shall many stand up against the king of the south; also the robbers of thy people shall exalt themselves to establish the See also:

VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision; but they shall fall." Palestine was apparently allotted to Antiochus and he came to take it, while Philip created a diversion in See also:

THRACE

Thrace and Asia Minor. Already he had allies among the Jews and, if Daniel is to be trusted, there were other Jews who See also:

rose up to shake off the yoke of foreign supremacy, Seleucid or Egyptian, and suca ceeded only in rendering the triumph of Antiochus easier of achievement. But in the year 200 B.C. See also:

Rome intervened with an See also:

EMBASSY

embassy, which declared war upon Philip and directed Antiochus and Ptolemy to make See also:

peace (Polyb. xvi.

27). And in 198 B.C. Antiochus heard that See also:

SCOPAS

Scopas, Ptolemy's hired See also:

COMMANDER

commander-in-chief had retaken Coele-Syria (Polyb. xvi. 39) and had subdued the nation of the Jews in the winter. For these sufficient reasons Antiochus hurried back and defeated Scopas at Paneas, which was known later as Caesarea See also:

PHILIPPI (Turk. Filibejik)

Philippi (Polyb. xvi. 18 seq.). After his victory he took formal possession of Batanaea, Samaria, See also:

ABILA, (I)

Abila and Gadara; " and after a little the Jews who dwelt round about the See also:

SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine called Jerusalem came over to him " (Polyb. xvi. 39). Only Gaza withstood him, as it withstood Alexander; and Polybius (xvi. 40) pauses to praise their fidelity to Ptolemy. The siege of Gaza was famous; but in the end the city was taken by storm, and Antiochus, secure at last of the province, which his ancestors had so long coveted, was at peace with Ptolemy, as the Roman embassy directed. From Palestine Antiochus turned to the Greek cities of Asia Minor, and by 196 B.C. he was in Thrace.

There he was confronted by the ambassadors of Rome, who expressed their surprise at his actions. Antiochus replied that he was recovering the territory won by Seleucus his ancestor, and inquired by what right did the Romans dispute with him about the free cities in Asia (Polyb. xviii. 33 seq.). The See also:

CONFERENCE

conference was Anilochus and Rome. broken off by a false See also:

REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report of Ptolemy's death, but war between Rome and Antiochus was clearly inevitable—and Antiochus was joined by See also:

Hannibal. After much See also:

DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy, Antiochus advanced into Greece and Rome declared war upon him in 191 B.C. (See also:

LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy See also:

XXXVI

xxxvi. 1). He was defeated on the seas and driven first out of Greece and then out of Asia Minor. His army was practically destroyed at See also:

MAGNESIA

Magnesia, and he was forced to accept the terms of peace, which the Romans had offered and he had refused before the battle. By the peace of See also:

APAMEA

Apamea (188 B.C.) he abandoned all territory beyond the Taurus and agreed to pay the whole cost of the war. He had stood in the beauteous land—the land of Israel—with destruction in his hand. He had made agreement with Ptolemy.

He had turned his face unto the isles and had taken many. But now a commander had put an end to his See also:

DEFIANCE

defiance and had even returned his reproach unto him (Dan. xi. 16-18). After Magnesia men said " King Antiochus the Great was" (See also:

APPIAN (Gr. 'Aairtavbs)

Appian, Syr. 37); and the by-word was soon justified in fact, for he plundered a temple of See also:

Bel at Elymais to replenish his exhausted See also:

TREASURY

treasury and met the fitting punishment from the gods at the hands of the inhabitants (Diodorus See also:

XXIX

xxix. 15). He stumbled and fell and was not found (Dan. xi. 19). The need which drove Antiochus to this See also:

SACRILEGE

sacrilege rested heavily upon his successor Seleucus IV. (reigned 187-175 B.c.). The See also:

INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity had still to be paid and Daniel /vleucus designates Seleucus as " one that shall cause an exactor to pass through the glory of the kingdom " (xi. 20).

A tradition preserved in 2 Macc. iii. describes the attempt of See also:

HELIODORUS

Heliodorus, the Seleucid See also:

PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime See also:

MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister, to See also:

PLUNDER

plunder the temple at Jerusalem. The holy city lay in perfect peace and the laws were very well kept because of the piety of Onias the high priest. But one Simon, a Benjamite, who had become See also:

GUARDIAN

guardian of the temple, quarrelled with Onias about the city See also:

MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market, and reported to the governor of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia that the treasury was full of untold sums of money. The priests and people besought Heliodorus to leave this sacred treasure untouched, but he persisted and—in See also:

ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to their prayers—was overthrown by a horse with a terrible rider and scourged by two youths. Onias, fearful of the consequences, offered a sacrifice for his restoration, and the two youths appeared to him with the See also:

MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message that he was restored for the See also:

SAKE

sake of Onias. The description of the previous tranquillity may be exaggerated, though it is clear that the Jews, like the other inhabitants of Palestine, must have been left very much to themselves; but the enmity between the adherents of Simon and the pious Jews, who supported and venerated Onias, seems to be a necessary precondition of the state of affairs soon to be revealed. There were already Jews who wished to make terms with their overlord at all See also:

COSTS

costs. When Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.) succeeded to the throne, See also:

JASON ('Iaacov)

Jason—whose name betrays a leaning towards Ant/o- Hellenism—the brother of Onias, offered the king chits Iv. a bribe for the high-priesthood and another for leave and Jason. to convert Jerusalem into a Greek city (2 Macc. iv. 7 sqq.). Antiochus had spent his youth at Rome as a See also:

HOSTAGE (through Fr. ostage, modern otage, from Late Lat. obsidaticum, the state of being an obses or hostage; Med. Lat. ostaticum, ostagium)

hostage, and the death of Seleucus found him filling the office of war minister" at See also:

Athens. The Hellenistic Jews were, therefore, his natural allies, and allies were very necessary to him if he was to establish himself in Syria.

Onias had proceeded to See also:

ANTIOCH

Antioch to explain the disorder and bloodshed due to Jason's followers, and so Jason, high priest of the Jews by See also:

grace of Antiochus,had his way. The existing privileges, which the Jews owed to their ambassador to Rome, were thrust aside. In defiance of the law a gymnasium was set up under the See also:

SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow of the citadel. The young men of the upper classes assumed the Greek See also:

hat, and were banded together into a gild of See also:

EPHEBI (Gr. i ri, and On, i.e. " those who have reached puberty ")

ephebi on the Greek See also:

MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model. In fact Jason established in Jerusalem the institutions which See also:

STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo expressly describes as visible signs of the Greek way of life—" gymnasia and associations of ephebi and clans and Greek names See also:

BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by Romans " (v. p. 264, referring to Neapolis)—and that on his own initiative. The party who wished to make a covenant with the heathen (1 Macc. i. 11 sqq.) were in the majority; and so far and so long as they were in the ascendant Antiochus was rid of his chief danger in Palestine, the debatable land between Syria and Egypt. At first Egypt was well disposed to him, as See also:

CLEOPATRA

Cleopatra his sister was See also:

REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent. But she died in 173 B.C. The struggle for the possession of Palestine began in 170 B.c., when Rome was preoccupied with the war against See also:

PERSEUS

Perseus of See also:

MACEDONIA

Macedonia. Antiochus sent an ambassador to Rome to protest that Ptolemy, contrary to all law and See also:

EQUITY (Lat. aequitas)

equity, was attacking him (Pelyb. xxvii.

17). In self See also:

defence, therefore, Antiochus advanced through Palestine and defeated the Egyptian army near See also:

PELUSIUM

Pelusium on the frontier. At the See also:

NEWS

news the young king, Ptolemy Philometor, fled by sea, only to fall into his See also:

UNCLE

uncle's hands; but his younger brother, Ptolemy Euergetes II., was proclaimed king by the people of Alexandria (Polyb. xxix. 8). Thus Antiochus entered Egypt as the See also:

CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of the rightful king and laid siege to Alexandria, which was held by the usurper. When he abandoned the siege and returned to Syria, Philometor, whom he had established at See also:

MEMPHIS

Memphis, was reconciled with his brother, being convinced of his See also:

PROTECTOR

protector's duplicity by the fact that he left a Syrian See also:

garrison in Pelusium. In 168 B.C. Antiochus returned and found that the pretext for his presence there was gone. Moreover the defeat of Perseus at Pydna set Rome free to take a strong line in Egypt. As he approached Alexandria Antiochus met the Roman ambassador, and, after a brief attempt at evasion, accepted his See also:

ULTIMATUM (from Lat. ultimus, last)

ultimatum on the spot. He evacuated Egypt and returned home cowed (Dan. xi. 30; cf.

Polyb. xxix. II). Later he could attend the celebration of the Roman triumph over Macedonia, and surpass it by a festival at Antioch in See also:

HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of his conquest of Egypt (Polyb. xxxi. 3—5); but the loss of Pelusium made it imperative that he should be sure of Palestine. His friends the Hellenizing Jews had split up into factions. See also:

MENELAUS

Menelaus, the brother of Simon the Benjamite, had bought the high-priesthood over the head of Jason, who fled into the country of the Ammonites, in 172 B.C. (2 Macc. iv. 23 sqq.). To secure his position (for he was not even of the priestly tribe) Menelaus persuaded the See also:

DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy of Antiochus, who was dealing with a revolt at See also:

TARSUS (mod. Tersous)

Tarsus, to put Onias to death. Antiochus, on his return, had his deputy executed and wept for the dead Onias. But Menelaus managed to retain his position, and his accusers were put to death. Antiochus could pity Onias, who had been tempted from the sanctuary at See also:

DAPHNE

Daphne, but he needed an ally in Jerusalem—and money.

Then, during the first or second invasion of Egypt, Jason, See also:

HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing that Antiochus was dead, returned suddenly and massacred all the followers of Menelaus who did not take See also:

REFUGE

refuge in the citadel. He had some claim to the loyalty of such pious Jews as remained, because he was of the tribe of Levi—in spite of the means he, like Menelaus, had employed to get the high-priesthood. His temporary success reveals the strength of the party who wished to adopt the Greek way of life without consenting to the complete substitution of the authority of Antiochus for the prescriptions of the Mosaic Law. It was also a warning to Antiochus, who returned to exact a bloody vengeance and to See also:

LOOT

loot the Temple (169 or 168 B.C.). After the evacuation of Egypt, Antiochus followed out the policy which Jason had suggested to him at the first. Jerusalem was suddenly occupied by one of his captains, and a garrison was planted in a new fortress on Hetlenwsm. Mount See also:

ZION, or SION (Heb. iiag, perhaps from runs " to be dry," nqs " to set up," or is " to protect "; Arabic analogies favour the meaning " hump," " summit of a ridge," and so " citadel ")

Zion. Then to coerce the Jews into See also:

con- formity, the Law was outraged in the Holy Place. The worship of See also:

ZEUS

Zeus Olympius replaced the worship of Yahweh, and See also:

SWINE

swine were offered as in the Eleusinian mysteries. At the same time the Samaritan temple at Shechem was made over to Zeus Xenius: it is probable that the Samaritans were, like the Jews, divided into two parties. The practice of Judaism was prohibited by a royal See also:

EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

edict (1 Macc. i. 41–63; 2 Macc. vi.-vii.

42), and some of the Jews died rather than disobey the law of Moses. It is legitimate to suppose that this attitude would have surprised Antiochus if he had heard of it. His Jewish friends, first Jason and then Menelaus, had been enlightened enough to throw off their prejudices, and, so far as he could know, they represented the majority of the Jews. Zeus was for him the supreme god of the Greek pantheon, and the See also:

SYNCRETISM (Gr. o'vyKprlrurw51, from aim and Kep&vvv,uc, mingle or blend, or, according to Plutarch, from en, and Kprlri'ecv, to combine against a common enemy after the manner of the cities of Crete)

syncretism, which he suggested for the sake of uniformity in his empire, assuredly involved no indignity to the only God of the Jews. At Athens Antiochus began to build a vast temple of Zeus Olympius, in place of one begun by See also:

PEISISTRATUS, (605?–527 B.c.)

Peisistratus; but it was only finished by See also:

HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian in A.D. 130. Zeus Olympius was figured on his coins, and he erected a statue of Zeus Olympius in the Temple of See also:

APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo at Daphne. More, he identified himself—Epiphanes, God Manifest —with Zeus, 'when he magnified himself above all other gods (Dan. xi. 37). To the minority of strict Jews he was therefore " the See also:

ABOMINATION (from Lat. ab, from, and orninare, to .fore-bode)

abomination of desolation standing where he ought not "; but the majority he carried with him and, when he was dying (165 B.c.) during his eastern campaigns, he wrote to the loyal Jews as their See also:

FELLOW

fellow See also:

CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen and general, exhorting them to preserve their present See also:

GOODWILL

goodwill towards him and his son, on the ground that his son would continue his policy in gentleness and kindness, and so maintain friendly relations with them (2 Macc. ix.). For the Jews who still deserved the name the policy of Antiochus wore a very different aspect. Many of them became martyrs for the Law, and for a time none would raise his hand to defend himself on the Sabbath if at all.

No record remains of the success of the Athenian missionary whom Antiochus sent to preach the new Catholicism; but the soldiers at any rate did their work thoroughly. At last a priestly family at a See also:

VILLAGE

village called Modein committed themselves to active resistance; and, when they suspended the Sabbath law for purposes of self defence, they were joined by the Hasidaeans (Assidaeans), who seem to have been the spiritual ancestors of the See also:

PHARISEES

Pharisees. The situation was plain enough: unless the particular law of the Sabbath was suspended there would soon have been none to keep the Law at all in Palestine. Jerusalem had apostatized, but the country so far as it was populated by Jews was faithful. Under Judas Maccabeus the outlaws wandered up and down re-establishing by force their proscribed religion. In 165 B.C. they attained their end, the regent of Syria conceded the measure of See also:

TOLERATION (from Lat. tolerare, to endure)

toleration they required with the approval of Rome; and in 164 B.c. the temple was purged of its desecration. But Judas did not lay down his arms, and added to his resources by rescuing the Jews of Galilee and Gilead and settling them in Judaea (, Macc. v.). The Nabataean Arabs and the Greeks of Scythopolis befriended them, but the province generally was hostile. In spite of their hostility Judas more than held his own until the regent defeated him at Bethzachariah. The rebels were driven back on Mount Zion and were there besieged (163 B.C.). The rumour of a pretender to the throne saved them from destruction, and they capitulated, exchanging the strongholds they had for their lives. At any rate the time of compulsory fusion with the Greeks was ended once for all.

In 162 B.C. See also:

DEMETRIUS

Demetrius, the son of Seleucus, escaped from Rome and was proclaimed king. Like Antiochus Epiphanes, who also had spent his youth as a hostage in Rome, he was inclined to listen to the Hellenizing Jews, whom he found assembled in full force at Antioch, and to support them against Judas, who was now supreme in Judaea. But he dealt more Alamos. subtly with them: instead of a See also:

pagan missionary he sent them Alcimus, a legitimate high-priest, who de- tached the Hasidaeans from Judas. Indeed, Alcimus and his See also:

COMPANY

company did more See also:

MISCHIEF

mischief among the Israelites than the heathen (1 Macc. vii. 23) and Judas took vengeance upon those who deserted from him. See also:

NICANOR

Nicanor was appointed governor and prevailed upon Judas to See also:

settle down like an ordinary citizen. But Alcimus complained to the king and Judas fled just in time to escape being sent to Antioch as a prisoner. In the battle of Adasa, which soon followed, Nicanor was defeated and his forces annihilated, thanks to the Jews who came out from all the villages of Judaea (i Macc. vii. 46). At this point (161 B.C.) Judas sent an embassy to Rome and an alliance was concluded (r Macc. viii.), too late to See also:

SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save Judas from the determined and victorious attack of Demetrius.

The death of Judas at Elasa left the See also:

field open to the apostates, and his followers were reduced to the level of roving brigands. The Syrian general made fruitless attempts to See also:

CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture them, and build forts in Judaea whose garrisons should harass Israel (r Macc. ix. 50-53), but Jonathan and Simon, See also:

BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers of Judas, found their power increase until Jonathan ruled at See also:

MICHMASH

Michmash as judge and destroyed the godless out of Israel (1 Macc. ix. 73). In 153 B.C. there appeared another of the series of pretenders to the Syrian throne, to whose rivalry Jonathan, and Simon after him, owed the position they acquired for Jonathan themselves and their nation. Jonathan was recog- and Simon. nized as the head of the Jews, and his See also:

PRESTIGE

prestige and power were such that the charges of the Hellenizing Jews received scant attention. As the years went on he became See also:

STRATEGUS (oTparfyos)

Strategus and the Syrian garrisons were withdrawn from all the strongholds except Jerusalem and Bethzur. In 147 B.C. he defeated the governor of Coele-Syria in another civil war and received Ekron as his personal See also:

REWARD

reward—as it was said in the name of the prophet Zachariah (ix. 7), " and Ekron shall be as a Jebusite." The king for whom he fought was defeated; but his successor acceded to the demands of Jonathan, added three districts of Samaria to Judaea and freed the whole from tribute. The next king confirmed this and appointed Simon military commander of the district stretching from Tyre to Egypt. So with Syrian as well as Jewish troops the brothers set about subduing Palestine; and Jonathan sent ambassadors in the name of the high-priest and people of the Jews to Rome and See also:

SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

Sparta. In spite of the treacherous murder of Jonathan by the Syrian general, the prosperity of the Jews was more than maintained by Simon.

The port of See also:

JOPPA

Joppa, which was already occupied by a Jewish garrison, was cleared of its inhabitants and populated by Jews. Finally, in 141 B.c., the new era began: the yoke of the heathen was taken away from Israel and Simon was declared high-priest and general and ruler of the Jews for ever until there should arise a faithful prophet (r Macc. xiii. 41, xiv. 41). In 135 B.C. the political ambitions of the Jews were rudely checked: a new king of Syria, Antiochus Sidetes, resented their encroachments at Joppa and Gazara and drove them John back into Jerusalem. In 134 See also:

FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine compelled John See also:

HYRCANUS ('Tp,av6s)

Hyrcanus. Hyrcanus, who had succeeded his See also:

FATHER

father Simon, to a belated compliance with the king's demands. The Jews laid down their arms, dismantled Jerusalem, and agreed to pay rent for Joppa and Gazara. But in 129 B.C. Antiochus died fighting in the East and for sixty-five years the Jews enjoyed independence. John Hyrcanus was not slow to take advantage of his opportunities. He conquered the Samaritans and destroyed the temple on Mount See also:

GERIZIM

Gerizim.

He subdued the Edomites and compelled them to become Jews. Soon after his death his sons stormed Samaria, which Alexander the Great had colonized with Macedonian soldiers, and razed it to the ground. Judas See also:

ARISTOBULUS

Aristobulus, who succeeded and was the first of the Hasmonaeans, called himself king and followed his father's example by compelling the Ituraeans to become Jews, and so creating the Galilee of New Testament times. In this case, as in that of the Edomites, it is natural to suppose that there existed already a nucleus of professing Jews which made the wholesale See also:

CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion possible. By this time (103 B.c.) it was clear that the Hasmonaeans were —from the point of view of a purist—practically indistinguishable from the Hellenizers whom Judas had opposed sb keenly, except that they did not abandon the formal observances of Judaism, said even enforced them upon foreigners. Consequently the Jews were divided into two parties—Pharisees and See also:

SADDUCEES

Sadducees—of whom the Pharisees cared only for doing or Jewish Revolt. enduring the will of God as revealed in Scripture or in the events of history. This division See also:

BORE

bore bitter fruit in the reign of pharisees Alexander Jannaeus (104-78 B.c.), who by a standing and army achieved a territorial expansion which was little saddacees. to the mind of the Pharisees. At first his attack upon Ptolemais brought him into conflict with Egypt, in which he was worsted, but the Jewish general who commanded the Egyptian army persuaded the queen to evacuate Palestine. Then he turned to the country east of the Jordan, and then to Philistia. Later he was utterly defeated by a king of Arabians and fled to Jerusalem, only to find that the Pharisees had raised his people against him and would only be satisfied by his death. The rebels' appeal to the Seleucid governor of part of Syria (88 B.C.) caused a revulsion in his favour, and finally he made peace by more than Roman methods.

See also:

ARETAS (Arab. Haritha)

Aretas, the Arabian king, pressed him hard on the south and the east, but he was able to make some conquests still on the east of the Jordan. In spite of his See also:

QUARREL

quarrel with the Pharisees, he seems to have offered the cities he conquered the choice between Judaism and destruction (Jos. Ant. xiii. 15, 4). Under Alexandra, his widow (78-69 B.c.), the Pharisees ruled the Jews and no expansion of the kingdom was attempted. It was threatened by See also:

TIGRANES, or DIKRAN

Tigranes, king of Armenia, who then held the Syrian Empire, but a bribe and the imminence of the Romans (Jos. Ant. xiii. 16, 4; War i. 5, 3) saved it. At her death a civil war began between her sons, which left the See also:

POMPEY

Pompey way open for Rome. Pompey's lieutenant See also:

Scaurus entered Syria in 65 B.c., after the final defeat of See also:

MITHRADATES

Mithradates, and Pompey soon followed to take command of the situation. Three parties pleaded before him, the representatives of the rival kings and a deputation from the people who wished to obey no king, but only the priests of their God (Jos.

Ant. xiv. 3, 2.) Pompey finally decided in favour of Hyrcanus, and entered Jerusalem by the aid of his party. The adherents of Aristobulus seized and held the temple mount against the Romans, but on the Day of See also:

ATONEMENT

Atonement of the year 63 B.C. their position was stormed and the priests were cut down at the altars (Jos. Ant. xiv. 4, 2—4; War i. 7). Hyrcanus was left as high-priest—not king of the Jews—and his territory was curtailed. The coast towns and the See also:

DECAPOLIS

Decapolis, together with Samaria and Scythopolis, were incorporated in the new Roman province of Syria. In 6r B.C. Pompey celebrated the third of a series of triumphs over See also:

Africa, Europe and Asia, and in his train, among the prisoners of war, was Aristobulus, king of Judaea. Palestine meanwhile remained quiet until 57 B.C., when Alexander, the son of Aristobulus, escaped from his Roman captivity and attempted to make himself master of his father's kingdom. Aulus See also:

GABINIUS, AULUS

Gabinius, the new proconsul of Syria, defeated his hastily gathered forces, besieged him in one of the fortresses he had managed to acquire, and induced him to abandon his attempt in return for his life.

The See also:

IMPOTENCE (Lat. impotentia, want of power)

impotence of Hyrcanus was so obvious that Gabinius proceeded to deprive him of all political power by dividing the country into five cantons, having Jerusalem, Gazara, See also:

AMATHUS

Amathus, Jericho, and Sepphoris, as their capitals. Other raids, headed by Aristobulus, or his son, or his adherent Peitholaus, disturbed Palestine during the interval between 57 and 51 B.C. and served to create a See also:

PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice against the Jews in the mind of their masters. But with the civil See also:

WARS

wars which began in 49 B.C. there came opportunities which Hyrcanus, at the instance of See also:

ANTIPATER (398?-319 B.C.)

Antipater, used to ingratiate himself with See also:

Caesar. Once more, as in the days of Simon, the suzerain power was divided against itself, and, though Rome was as strong as the Seleucids had been weak, Caesar was grateful. For timely help in the Egyptian War of 47 B.C. Hyrcanus was rewarded by the title of Ethnarch, and Antipater with the Roman citizen-ship and the office of See also:

PROCURATOR (Lat. procurare, to take care of)

procurator of Judaea. The sons of Antipater became deputies for their father; and it appears that Galilee, which was entrusted to Herod, fell within his jurisdiction. The The power of this Idumaean family provoked popular Herod& risings and Antipater was poisoned. But Herod held his ground as governor of Coele-Syria and retained the favour of See also:

Cassius and Mark Antony in turn, despite thecomplaints of the Jewish See also:

NOBILITY

nobility. In 42 B.C., however, the See also:

TYRANT (Gr. r6pavvos, master, ruler)

tyrant of Tyre encroached upon Galilean territory and in 40 B.C. Herod had to See also:

FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly for his life before the Parthians. Even as a landless fugitive Herod could count upon Roman support.

At the instance of Mark Antony, and with the assent of Octavian, the See also:

SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate declared him king of Judaea, and after two years' fighting he made his title good. Antigonus, whom the Parthians had set upon his throne, was beheaded by his Roman allies (37 B.C.). As king of the Jews (37-4 B.C.) Herod was completely subject and eagerly subservient to his Roman masters. In 34 B.C. (for example) or earlier, Mark Antony gave Cleopatra the whole of Phoenicia and the coast of the Philistines south of Eleuthesus, with the exception only of Tyre and Sidon, part of the Arabian territory and the district of Jericho. Herod acquiesced and leased Jericho, the most fertile part of his kingdom, from Cleopatra. In the war between Antony and Octavian Cleopatra prevented Herod from joining Antony and so left him free to pay court to Octavian after See also:

ACTIUM (mod. Punta)

Actium (31 B.C.). A year later Octavian restored to the Jewish kingdom Jericho, Gadara, Hippos, Samaria, Gaza, Anthedon, Joppa and Straton's See also:

TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

Tower (Caesarea). Secure of his position, Herod began to build temples and palaces and whole cities up and down Palestine as visible embodiments of the Greek civilization which was to distinguish the Roman Empire from See also:

BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

barbarian lands. A sedulous courtier, he was rewarded with the confidence of See also:

AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus, who ordered the procurators of Syria to do nothing without taking his advice. But with the establishment of (relatively) universal peace Pales-tine ceased to be a factor in general history. Herod the Great enlarged his See also:

BORDERS, THE

borders and fostered the Greek civilization of the cities under his sway.

After his death his kingdom was dismembered and gradually came under the direct rule of Rome. Herod See also:

Agrippa (A.D. 41-44) revived the glories of the reign of Alexandra and won the favour of the Pharisees; but his attempt to form a confederacy of client-princes was nipped in the bud. ,Even the war which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, and the rebellion under Hadrian, which led to the edict forbidding the Jews to enter Jerusalem, are matters proper to the history of the Jews. References to authorities other than Josephus are given in the course of the See also:

ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article; his Antiquities and War are the chief source for the period. All modern authorities are given by See also:

SCHURER, EMIL (1844–1910)

Schurer. (J. H. A. H.) Owing to the peculiar conditions of the land and the varied interests involved in it, the later history may best be treated in four sections. In the first the general political history will be set forth; in the second a sketch will be given of the cult of the " holy places "; the third will contain some particulars regarding the history of modern colonization by foreigners, which, while it has not affected the political status of the country, has produced very considerable modifications in its population and life; and the See also:

FOURTH

fourth will consist of a brief notice of the progress of exploration and scientific research whereby our knowledge of the past and the present of the land has been systematized.

1. Political History from A.D. 7o.—The destruction of Jerusalem was followed by the dispersal of the Jews, of whom till then it had been the religious and political centre. The The first seat of the sanhedrin was at See also:

JAMNIA ('Ia,uvia or '1a /11161a)

Jamnia (Yebna), Dispersion. where the Rabbinic system began to be formulated. This extraordinary spiritual tyranny, for it seems little else, acquired a wonderful hold and exercised a singularly uniting power over the scattered nation. The See also:

sharp contrasts between its compulsory religious observances and those of the rest of the world prevented such an absorption of the Jewish people into the Roman Empire as had caused the disappearance of the ten tribes of Israel by their merging with the Assyrians. It would appear that at first, after the destruction of the city, no specially repressive See also:

MEASURES

measures were contemplated by the conquering Romans, who rather attempted to reconcile the Jews to their subject state by a leniency which had proved successful in the case of other tribes brought by conquest within the empire. But they had reckoned without the isolating influence of Rabbinism. Here and there small insurrections took place, in themselves easily suppressed, but showing the Romars that they had a turbulent and troublesome people to deal with. At last Hadrian determined to See also:

STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp out this aggressive Jewish nationalism. He issued an edict forbidding the See also:

READING

reading of the law, the observance of the Sabbath, and the rite of See also:

CIRCUMCISION (Lat. circum, round, and caedere, to cut)

circumcision; and determined to convert the still half-ruined Jerusalem into a Roman colony. The consequence .of this edict was the See also:

METEOR (Gr. µerEwpa, literally " things in the air,” from µera, beyond, and aeip6Lv, to lift up)

meteor-like outbreak of See also:

Bar-Cochebas (q.v.) A.D.

132-135. The origin of this person and the history of his rise to power are unknown. Bar- Nor is it certain whether he himself at first made Cochebas. a personal claim to be the promised Messiah; but it was his recognition as such by the distinguished See also:

RABBI

Rabbi Akiba, then the most influential Jew alive, which placed him in the command of the insurrection, with 200,000 men at his command. Jerusalem was captured, as well as a large number of strongholds and villages throughout the country. See also:

JULIUS

Julius See also:

Severus, sent with an immense army by Hadrian, came to quell the insurrection. He recaptured Jerusalem, at the siege of which Bar-Cochebas himself was slain. The rebels fled to Bether—the modern Bittir, near Jerusalem, where the fortress garrisoned by them still remains, under the name Khurbet el-Yahud, or " Ruin of the Jews "—and were there defeated and slaughtered in a sanguinary encounter. It is said that as many as 58o,000 men were slain! Hadrian then turned Jerusalem into a Roman colony, changed its name to Aelia Capitolina, built a temple of See also:

JUPITER

Jupiter on the site of the Jewish temple and (it is alleged) a temple of See also:

VENUS

Venus on the site of the Holy See also:

Sepulchre, and forbade any Jew, on See also:

pain of death, to appear within sight of the city. This disaster was the death-See also:

BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow to hopes of a Jewish national independence, and the leaders of the people devoted Rabbinic themselves thenceforth to legal and religious study Sehoo/s. in the Rabbinical schools, which from A.D. 135, (the year of the suppression of the revolt) onwards developed in various towns in the hitherto despised province of Galilee.

Shefa'Amr (Shafram), Sha'arah (Shaaraim) and especially Tubariya (Tiberias) became centres of this learning: and the remains of synagogues of the 2nd or 3rd century which still exist in Galilee attest the strength of Judaism in that district during the years following the abortive attempt of Bar-Cochebas. Palestine thus continued directly under Roman rule. In A.D. 105, under See also:

TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan, See also:

Cornelius See also:

Palma added Gilead and Moab to the empire. In 295 Auranitis, Batanea and Trachonitis were added to the province. The See also:

PILGRIMAGE (Fr. pelerinage, Lat. peregrinatio)

pilgrimage of the Empress See also:

Helena properly belongs to the second section into which we have divided this history; we therefore pass it over for the present. The conversion of See also:

CONSTANTINE

Constantine to Christianity—or rather the profession of Christianity by Constantine seemed likely to result in another Jewish persecution, foreshadowed by severe repressive edicts. This, however, was averted by the See also:

EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor's death. The progress of the corrupt Christianity of the empire of See also:

BYZANTIUM

Byzantium was checked for a while under See also:

JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Julian the Apostate, who, among other indications of his opposition to Christianity, rescinded the edicts against the Jews on his coming to the throne in 361, and gave orders for the restoration of the Jewish temple. The latter work was interrupted almost as soon as begun by an extraordinary phenomenon—the outburst of flames and loud detonations, easily explained at the time as a divine See also:

JUDGMENT

judgment on this direct attempt to falsify the prophecy of See also:

Christ. It has been ingeniously suggested in this more scientific See also:

GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation that the See also:

EXPLOSION

explosion was due to the ignition of some forgotten See also:

STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store of oil or See also:

NAPHTHA

naphtha, such as was said to have been stored in the temple (2 See also:

MACE (Fr. masse, O. Fr. mace, connected with Lat.'ntateola, a mallet)

Mace. i. 19-23, 36), and similar to a store discovered, with less disastrous consequences, in another part of the city early in the 19th century).

On the partition of the empire in A.D. 395 Palestine naturally fell to the share of the emperor of the East. From this onward for more than two See also:

HUNDRED

hundred years there is a period ' See Palestine Ex pl. Fund Quarterly Statement, 1902, p. 389. of comparative quiet in Palestine, with no external political interference. The country was nominally Christian; the only history it displays being that of the development The later of pilgrimage and of the cult of holy places and of Empire. See also:

RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics, varied by occasional persecutions of the Jews. The elaborate building operations of Justinian (527–565) must not be forgotten. The " Golden Gate of the Temple area and part of the church which is now the El-Aksa See also:

MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

Mosque at Jerusalem, are due to him. Not till 611 do we find any event of importance in the uninteresting record of Byzantine sovereignty. But this and the following years were signalized by a series ofchosroes u. catastrophes of the first magnitude.

See also:

CHOSROES

Chosroes II (q.v.), king of Persia, made an inroad into Syria; joined by the Jews, anxious to revenge their misfortunes, he swept over the country, carrying plunder and destruction wherever he went. Monasteries and churches were burnt and sacked, and Jerusalem was taken; the Holy Sepulchre church was destroyed and its treasures carried off; the other churches were likewise razed to the ground; the See also:

PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch was taken prisoner. It is alleged that 90,000 persons were massacred. Thus for a time the province of Syria with Palestine was lost to the empire of Byzantium. The Emperor See also:

HERACLIUS ('HpaeXaos) (c. 575-642)

Heraclius reconquered the lost territory in 629. But his triumph was short-lived. A more formidable enemy was already on the way, and the final wresting of Syria from the feeble relics of the Roman Empire was imminent. The separate tribal See also:

units of Arabia, more or less impotent when divided and at war with one another, received for the first time an indissoluble bond of See also:

union from the prophet Mahomet, whose perfect knowledge of Rise of /slam human nature (at least of Arab human nature) enabled him to formulate a religious system that was calculated to command an enthusiastic See also:

ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance by the tribes to which it was primarily addressed. His successor, See also:

Abu Bekr, called on the tribes of Arabia to unite and to capture the fertile province of Syria from the Christians. Heraclius had not sufficient time to prepare to meet this new foe, and was defeated in his first engagement with Abu Bekr. (For the general history of this period see See also:

CALIPHATE

CALIPHATE). The latter seized Bostra and proceeded to march to Damascus.

He died, however, before carrying out his See also:

DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design (A.D. 634), and was succeeded by See also:

OMAR (c. 581-644)

Omar, who, after a siege of seventy days entered the city. Other towns fell in turn, such as Caesarea, Sebusteh (Samaria), Nablus (Shechem), Lydd, Jaffa. Meanwhile Heraclius was not idle. He*collected a huge army and in 636 marched against the Arabs. The latter retreated to the Yarmuk See also:

RIVER

River, where the Byzantines met them. Betrayed, it is said, by a Christian who had suffered personal wrongs at the hands of certain of the Byzantine generals, the army of Heraclius was utterly defeated, and with it fell the Byzantine Empire in Syria and Palestine. After this victory Omar's army marched against Jerusalem, which after a feeble resistance capitulated. The terms of peace, though on the whole moderate, were of a galling and humiliating nature, being ingeniously contrived to make the Christians ever conscious of their own inferiority. Restrictions in church-building, in dress, in the use of beasts of burden, in social intercourse with Moslems, and in the use of bells and of the sign of the See also:

CROSS

cross were enforced. When these terms were agreed upon and signed Omar, under the leadership of the Christian patriarch See also:

SOPHRONIUS

Sophronius, visited the Holy Rock (the See also:

prayer-place of David and the site of the Jewish temple). This he found to be defiled with filth, spread upon it by the Christians in despite of the Jews.

Omar and his followers in person cleaned it, and established the place of prayer which, though later rebuilt, has borne his name ever since. Dissensions and rivalries soon broke out among the Moslem leaders, and in 661 Moawiya, the first See also:

CALIPH, CALIF

caliph of the Omayyad dynasty, transferred the seat of the caliphate fromAbdatma//&, Mecca to Damascus, where it remained till the See also:

ABBASIDS

Abbasids seized the sovereignty and transferred it to See also:

BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD

Bagdad Omar. (750). Rivals sprang up from time to time. In 684 Caliph Abdalmalik (`Abd el-Melek), in order to weaken the prestige of Mecca, set himself to beautify the holy shrine of Jerusalem, and built the Kubbet es-Sakhrah, or See also:

DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

Dome of the Rock, which still remains one of the most beautiful buildings in the world (CALIPHATE: B 5). In 831 the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was restored; but about a hundred years later it was again destroyed as a result of the revolt of the See also:

CARMATHIANS (QARMATHIANS, KARMATHIANS)

Carmathians (q.v.), who in 929 pillaged Mecca. This produced a Moslem exodus to Jerusalem, with the consequence mentioned. The Carmathian revolt, one of the first of the great splits in the Moslem world, was followed by others: in 936 Egypt declared its independence, under a line of caliphs which claimed descent from Fatima, daughter of the prophet (see See also:

FATIMITES); and in 996 Hakim Bi-amrillah mounted the Egyptian throne. This madman caused the church of the Holy Sepulchre to be entirely destroyed: and giving himself out to be the incarnation of Deity, his cult was founded by two Persians, Darazi and Hamza ibn All, in the Lebanon; where among the See also:

Druses it still persists (see DRUSES). The contentions between the Abbasid and Fatimite caliphs continued till 1072, when Palestine suffered its next invasion. This was that of the Seljuk Turkomans from See also:

KHORASAN, or KHORASSAN (i.e. " land of the sun ")

Khorasan. On behalf of their king, the Khwarizmian general Atsiz invaded Palestine and captured Jerusalem and Damascus, and then marched on Egypt to carry out his See also:

ORIGINAL

original purpose of destroying the Fatimites.

The Egyptians, however, repulsed the invaders and drove them back, retaking the captured Syrian cities. The sufferings of the Christians and the desecrations of their sacred buildings during these troubled times created wide-spread indignation through the west: and this indignation was inflamed The into fury by See also:

Peter the See also:

HERMIT

Hermit, a native of See also:

PICARDY (La Picardie)

Picardy, See also:

CRUSADES

crusades. who in early life had been a soldier. In 1093 he went in pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and in his wrath at the miseries of the pilgrims he returned to Europe and preached the See also:

DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of the Church to See also:

RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse, Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa,reexcutere, to shake off again, re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake)

rescue the " holy places " from the infidel. The Church responded, and under Peter's leadership a See also:

motley See also:

CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd, principally of See also:

French origin, set out in iog6 for the Holy Land. Others, under better general-ship, followed; but of the 600,000 that started from their homes only about 40,000 succeeded in reaching Jerusalem, See also:

ill-discipline, famine and battles by the way having reduced their ranks. They captured Jerusalem, however, in See also:

JULY

July 1099, and the See also:

LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of the See also:

ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault, See also:

GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678)

Godfrey of See also:

BOULOGNE, or BOULLONGNE

Boulogne, was made king of Jerusalem. So was founded the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, whose history is one of the most painful ever penned (see CRUSADES). It is a record of almost unredeemed " envy, hatred, and malice," and of vice with its consequent diseases, all rendered the more repulsive in that its transactions were carried on in the name of religion. For 88 turbulent years this feudal kingdom was imposed on the country, and then it disappeared as suddenly as it came, leaving no trace but the ruins of castles and churches, a few place-names, and an undying hereditary hatred of Christianity among the native population. The abortive Second Crusade (1147), led by the kings of See also:

France and See also:

Germany, came to aid the rapidly weakening Latin kingdom after their failure to hold See also:

Edessa against Nureddin, the ruler of northern Syria. In 1173 Nureddin died, and his kingdom was seized by See also:

SALADIN (Arab. Sala-ud-din, " Honouring the Faith ") (1138—1193)

Saladin (Salah ed-Din), a man of Kurdish origin, who had previously distinguished himself by capturing Egypt in company with Shirkuh, the general of Nureddin. Saladin almost immediately set himself to drive the See also:

Franks from the country.

The Frankish king was the boy See also:

Baldwin IV., who had paid for the errors of his fathers by being afflicted with leprosy. After being defeated by Saladin at Banias, the Franks were compelled to make a treaty with the Moslem leader. The treaty was broken, and Saladin proceeded to take action. The wretched leper king meanwhile died, his successor, Baldwin V. also a young boy,was poisoned, and the kingdom passed to the worthless See also:

GUY, THOMAS (1644–1724)

Guy de See also:

LUSIGNAN

Lusignan, who in the following year (1187) was crushed by Saladin at the battle of Hattin, which restored the whole of Palestine to the Moslems. The Third Crusade (1189) to recover Jerusalem was led by See also:

Frederick I. of Germany. Acre was captured, but quarrels among the chiefs of the expedition made the enterprise ineffective. It was in this crusade that See also:

Richard Coeur-de-lion was especially distinguished among the Frankish warriors. Saladin died in 1193. In 1198 and 1204 took place the Fourth and Fifth Crusades-mere expeditions, as abortive as the third. And as though it were foreordained that no element of horror should be wanting from the history of the crusades, in 1212 there took place one of the most ghastly tragedies that has ever happened in the world—the Crusade of the Children. Fifty thousand boys and girls were persuaded by some pestilent dreamers that their childish innocence would effect what their immoral fathers had failed to accomplish, and so left their homes on an expedition to capture the Holy Land. The vast majority never returned; the happiest of them were ship-wrecked and drowned in the Mediterranean.

This event is of some historical importance in that it indicates how obvious to their contemporaries was the evil character of those engaged in the more serious expeditions.' The other four crusades which took place from time to time down to 1272 are of no special importance, though there is a certain amount of interest in the fact that after the See also:

SIXTH

sixth crusade, in 1229, emperor Frederick II. was permitted to occupy Jerusalem for ten years. But a new element, the Mongolians of Central Asia, now bursts in on the See also:

SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene. The tribes from east of the See also:

CASPIAN

Caspian had conquered Persia in 1218. They were driven westward by pressure of the See also:

TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars, and in 1228 had been called by the ruler of Damascus to his aid. In 1240, however, they transferred their alliance to the See also:

SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan of Egypt, and pillaged Northern Syria. Driven downward through Galilee they seized Jerusalem, massacred its inhabitants and plundered its churches. They then marched on to Gaza, where the Egyptians joined them, and together inflicted a crushing defeat on the Christians and Moslems of Syria, for once compelled to unite by the common danger. The Khwarizmians and Egyptians afterwards quarrelled, and the former were compelled to retire, leaving Palestine under the rule of the Mameluke2 sultans of Egypt. Shortly afterwards however, another Central Asiatic invasion—that of the Tatar tribes, took place. Under their leader Magi these tribes came by way of Bagdad, which they captured in 1258, and in 126o they attacked and captured Damascus and ravaged Syria. Bibars (Beibars, Baibars), general of the Egyptian sultan Kotuz, met and drove them back; and having murdered his master, became sultan in his See also:

STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849– )

stead. He then proceeded to attack and destroy the relics of Christian possession in Palestine.

One after another—Caesarea, Safed, Jaffa, Antioch—they fell, leaving at last Acre (See also:

AKKA (TIKKI-TI%II)

Akka) only. Bibars died in 1277, and in 1291 Acre itself was captured by Khatel son of Kala`un, who thus put a final end to Frankish domination. During the 14th century there is little of interest in the history of Palestine. The Christians made efforts to creep back to their former possessions and churches were rebuilt in Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Nazareth; but another devastation was the result of the ferocious inroads of the Mongolian Timur (Tamerlane) in 1400. The last stage of the history of Palestine was reached in 1516, when the war between the Ottoman sultan and the Mamelukes of Egypt resulted in the transference of the country Turkish to the dominion of the See also:

TURKS

Turks. This change of rulers Dominion. did not produce much change in the See also:

ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration or See also:

CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the country. Local See also:

GOVERNORS

governors were appointed from headquarters: revenues were annually sent to Constantinople: various public works were undertaken, such as the ' This story is probably the historic basis of the legend of the " Pied See also:

PIPER, CARL, COUNT (1647-1716)

Piper of See also:

HAMELIN, FRANCOIS ALPHONSE (1796-1864)

Hamelin." 2 The Mamelukes were originally military slaves, who in Egypt succeeded in seizing the supreme power. See EGYPT_ : History (Moslem period). Prankish Kingdom. rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem by See also:

SULEIMAN

Suleiman the Magnificent (1537) : but on the whole Palestine ceases for nearly three hundred years from this point to have a history, save the dreary record of the sanguinary quarrels of local sheiks and of oppression of the peasants by the various government officials. Few names or events stand out in the history of this period: perhaps the most interesting See also:

PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality is that of the Druse See also:

prince See also:

FAKHR

Fakhr ud-Din (1595-1634), whose expulsion of the Arabs from the coast as far south as Acre and establishment of his own kingdom, in defiance of Ottoman authority—to say nothing of his See also:

DILETTANTE

dilettante cultivation of art, the result of a temporary sojourn in Italy—make him worth a passing notice. The German botanist, Leonhard Rauwolf (d.

1596 or 1606), who visited Palestine in 1575, has left a vivid description of the difficulties that then beset even so simple a journey as that from Jaffa to Jerusalem. The former town he found in ruins. A safe conduct had to be obtained from the governor of Ramleh before the party could proceed. At Yazur they were stopped by an official who extorted heavy See also:

BLACKMAIL

blackmail on the ground that the sultan had given him See also:

charge of the " holy places " and had forbidden him to admit anyone to them without payment (!). Further on they had a scuffle with certain " Arabians "; and at last, after successfully accomplishing the passage of the " rough and stony " road that led to Jerusalem, they were obliged to dismount before the gate of the city till they should receive license from the governor to enter. Towards the close of the 18th century a chief of the family of Zaidan, named Dhaher el-See also:

AMIR, or AMEER (an Arabic word meaning " commander," from the root amr, " commanding ")

Amir, rose to power in Acre. To El-Jazzar. him fled from Egypt an Albanian slave named Ahmed, who (from the expertness with which he had been wont to carry out his master's orders to get rid of inconvenient rivals) bore the surname el-Jazzar, " the See also:

BUTCHER

butcher." He had, however, incurred punishment for refusing to obey a command of his master, Mahommed See also:

BEY (a modern Turk. word, the older form being beg, cf. Pers. baig)

Bey, and so took refuge with the Palestinian sheik. After five years Mahommed Bey died and el-Jazzar returned to Egypt. Dhaher revolted against the- Turkish government and el-Jazzar was commis- sioned to quell the rising; his long residence with Dhaher having given him knowledge which marked him out as the most suitable for the purpose. He was successful in his enterprise, and was installed as governor in Dhaher's place. He was a man of barbaric aesthetic tastes, and Acre owes some of its public buildings to him: but he was also capricious and tyrannical, and well lived up to his surname. Till 1791 the French had had factories and business establishments at Acre;' el-Jazzar ordered them in that year summarily to leave the town.

In 1798 See also:

NAPOLEON

Napoleon, returning from his unsuccessful attempt at founding an empire on the See also:

Nile, came to stir up a Syrian rising against the Turkish authorities. He attacked el-Jazzar in Acre, after capturing Jaffa, Ramleh and I,ydd. A detachment of troops was sent under General See also:

JEAN

Jean See also:

BAPTISTE

Baptiste Kleber across the plain of Esdraelon to take Nazareth and Tiberias, and defeated the Arabs between Fuleh and Afuleh. Napoleon was however compelled by the English to raise the siege. El-Jazzar died in 1806 and was succeeded by his milder adopted son, Suleiman, who on his death in 1814 was followed by the fanatic Abdullah. This bigoted Moslem caused the Jewish secretary of his office to be murdered. The Jew had anticipated just such an event, and had secretly arranged that after his death an See also:

INVENTORY (post-class. Lat. inventarium, a list or repertory, from invenire to find)

inventory of Abdullah's property should fall into the hands of the government—knowing that the latter had claims on the estates of el-Jazzar and Suleiman. The government accordingly pressed their claims: Abdullah refused to pay and was besieged in Acre. He called for the intervention of Mehemet See also:

Ali, governor of Egypt; the latter settled the dispute, but Abdullah then refused to See also:

DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge the claims of Mehemet Ali. The latter accordingly sent 20,000 men under the command of his son See also:

IBRAHIM

Ibrahim See also:

PASHA

Pasha, who besieged Acre in 1831 and entered and plundered it. So began the short- lived Egyptian domination of Palestine. Mehemet All proved 1 When this French colony was established is uncertain; Maundrell found them there at the end of the 17th century.evanescent—to the unmixed advantage of the whole Recentory. country; and the increase of European interests has led to the establishment of consulates and vice-consulates of the great powers in Jerusalem and in the ports.

The battle of religions still continued. In 1847 the dispute in the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem about the right to mark with a See also:

STAR

star the birthplace of Christ became one of the prime causes of the Crimean war. In 1860 occurred a sudden anti-Christian outbreak in Damascus and the Lebanon, in which 14,000 Christians were massacred. On the other hand it may be mentioned that on the 3oth of June 1855 the cross was for the first time since the crusades borne aloft through the streets of Jerusalem on the occasion of the visit of a European prince; and that in 1858 the sacred area of the Haramesh-Sherif—the mosque on the site of the Temple of Jerusalem—was for the first time thrown open to Christian visitors. The latter half of the 19th century is mainly occupied with the record of a very remarkable process of colonization and settlement—French and Russian monastic and other establishments, some of them semi-religious and semi-political; German colonies; fanatical American communities; Jewish agricultural settlements—all, so to speak, " nibbling " at the country, and each so See also:

INTENT (from Lat. intend ere, to stretch out, extend, particularly in the phrase intendere animum, to turn one's mind to, purpose)

intent upon gaining a step on its rivals as to be forgetful of the gathering storm. For in the background of all is the vast See also:

peninsula of Arabia, which at long intervals fills with its wild, untamable humanity to a point beyond which it cannot support them. This has been the origin of the long succession of Semitic waves—Babylonian, Assyrian, Canaanite, Hebrew, Nabataean, Moslem—that have flowed over Mesopotamia and Palestine; there is every reason to suppose that they will be followed by others, and that the Arab will remain master at the end, as he was in the beginning. In 1896 See also:

HERZL, THEODOR (1860-1904)

Herzl (q.v.) issued his proposal for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine and in 1898 he came to the country to investigate its possibilities. The same year was signalized by the picturesque visit of the German emperor, See also:

William II., which gave a great stimulus to German interests in the Holy Land. In 1902 Palestine was devastated by a severe epidemic of See also:

CHOLERA (from the Gr. Xo)du, tile, and Map, to flow)

cholera. In 1906 arose a dispute between the British and Turkish governments about the boundary between Turkish and Egyptian territory, as the Turks had interfered with some of the landmarks. A joint See also:

COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission was appointed, which marked out the boundary from Rafah, about midway between Gaza and El-Arish, in an almost straight line S.S.W. to Tabah in 29° 30' on the west side of the gulf of Akaba.

A See also:

map of the boundary will be found in the Geographical Journal (1907), xxix. 88. 2. The Holy Places.—To the vast majority of civilized humanity, Jewish, Christian and Moslem, the religious interest of the associations of Palestine predominates over every other, and at all ages has attracted pilgrims to its shrines. We need not here do more than allude to the centralization of Jewish ideas and aspirations in Jerusalem, especially in the holy rock on which tradition (and probably textual corruption) have placed the scene of Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac, and over which the Most Holy Place of the Temple stood. The same associations are those of the Moslem, whose religion has so strangely absorbed the prophets and traditions of the older faiths. Other shrines, such as the alleged See also:

TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of Moses, and the mosque of Hebron over the cave of Machpelah, are the centres of Moslem pilgrimage. Christianity is however responsible for the greatest development of the cult of holy places, and it is to the sacred shrines of christendom that we propose to confine our attention. no less a tyrannical master than the Turks and the sheiks; the country revolted in 1834, but the insurrection was quelled. In 184o Lebanon revolted; and in the same year the Turks, with the aid of France, See also:

England and See also:

Austria, regained Palestine and expelled the Egyptian governor. From 1840 onwards the Ottoman government gradually strengthened its hold on Palestine.

End of Article: JOPVA

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