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From the See also:abdication of See also:Gregory XII. to the See also:election of See also: To repair the ravages of neglect, and, more especially, to restore the decayed churches, Martin at once expended large sums; while, later, he engaged famous artists, like See also:Gentile da See also:Fabriano and See also:Masaccio, and encouraged all forms of See also:art by every means within his See also:power. Numerous humanists were appointed to the See also:Chancery, and the See also:Romans were loud in their praise of the papal regime. But he was not content with laying the See also:foundations for the renovation of the Eternal See also:City: he was the architect who rebuilt the papal See also:monarchy, which the schism had reduced to the See also:verge of See also:dissolution. To this difficult problem he brought remarkable skill and aptness, See also:energy and ability. His temporal See also:sovereignty he attempted to strengthen through his See also:family connexions, and magnificent See also:provision in See also:general was made for the members of his See also:house. Nor was the activity of Martin V. less successful in See also:political than in ecclesiastical reform, which latter included the combating of the See also:Fraticelli, the See also:amendment of the See also:clergy, the encouragement of pity by the regulation of feast-days, the recommendation of increased devotion to the See also:sacrament of the See also:altar, and the strengthening of the conception of the Church by the See also:great See also:jubilee of 1423. At the same time the crowning See also:reward of his labours was the effacing of the last traces of the schism. He prosecuted successfully the conflict with the adherents of See also:Benedict XIII., who, till the day of his See also:death' clung to the remnants of his usurped authority (see BENEDICT XIII.). An See also:attempt on the See also:part of See also:Alphonso V. of See also:Aragon to renew the schism failed; and, in 1429, the Spaniard was compelled to give up his See also:anti-pope, See also:Clement VIII. See also:Count John of See also:Armagnac, whom Martin had excommunicated as a See also:protector of schismatics, was also driven to make submission. Martin rendered the greatest service by his See also:admission of a whole See also:series of distinguished men into the See also:College of Cardinals; but he was less fortunate in his struggles against Hussitism. His death took See also:place on the loth of See also:February 1431, and the inscription on his grave—still preserved in the Lateran church—styles him " the felicity of his See also:age" (temporum suorum felicity). The Colonna pope was followed by the strict, moral and pious See also:Gabriel Condulmaro, under the See also:title of See also:Eugenius IV. BngeniusIV.His pontificate was not altogether happy. At the very 1431-1447 first, his violent and premature See also:measures against the 'See also:mime Colonna family, which had received such unbounded council of favour from his predecessor, embroiled him in a Beset sanguinary See also:feud. Far worse, however, were the conflicts which Eugenius had to support against the Council of Basel—already dissolved on the 18th of See also:December 1431. At the beginning, indeed, a reconciliation between the pope and council was effected by Sigismund who, on the 31st of May 1433, was crowned See also:emperor at Rome. But, as See also:early as the 29th of May 1434 a revolution See also:broke out in Rome, which, on the 4th of See also:June, drove the pope in, See also:flight to See also:Florence; where he was obliged to remain, while Giovanni Vitelleschi restored order in the papal See also:state. The See also:migration of Eugenius IV. to Florence was of extreme importance; for this town was the real See also:home of the new art, and the intellectual See also:focus of all the humanistic movements in See also:Italy. At Florence the pope came into closer contact with the humanists, and to this circumstance is due the See also:gradual dominance which they attained in the See also:Roman Curia—a dominance which, both in itself, and even more because of the frankly See also:pagan leanings of many in that party, was See also:bound to awaken serious misgivings. The See also:Italian troubles, which had entailed the See also:exile of Eugenius IV., were still insignificant in comparison with those conjured up by the fanatics of the Council in See also:Basel. The decrees enacted by that See also:body made deep inroads on the rights of the Holy See; and the conflict increased in violence. On the 31st of See also:July 1437 the fathers of Basel summoned Eugenius IV. to appear before their tribunal. The pope retorted on the 18th of September by transferring the See also:scene of the council to Ferrara—afterwards to Florence. There, in July 1439, the union with the Greeks was effected: but it remained simply a See also:paper agreement. On the 25th of June 1439 the synod—which had already pronounced See also:sentence of See also:heresy on Eugenius IV., by See also:reason of his obstinate disobedience to the See also:assembly of the Church—formally deposed him; and, on the 5th of November, a See also:rival pontiff was elected in the See also:person of the See also:Felix V. ambitious Amadeus of See also:Savoy, who now took the Antipope. title of Felix V. (See BASEL, COUNCIL OF, and
FELIx V.) Thus the assembly of Christendom at Basel had resulted, not in the reformation of the Church, but in a new schism! •This, in fact, was an inevitable sequel to the attempt to overthrow the monarchical constitution of the Church. The anti-pope----the last in the See also:history of the papacy —made no headway, although the council invested him with the power of levying See also:annates to a greater extent than had ever been claimed by the Roman See also:Curia.
The See also:crime of this new schism was soon to be expiated by its perpetrators. The disinclination of sovereigns and peoples to a See also:division, of the disastrous consequences of which the See also:West had only lately had plentiful experiences, was so pronounced that
1 May 23, 1423: vide the See also:Chronicle of Martin de Alpartil, edited by Ehrle (1906.
XX. ?3the violent proceeding of the Basel fathers alienated from them the sympathies of nearly all who, till then, had leaned to their See also:side. While the See also:prestige of the schismatics waned, Eugenius IV, gained new See also:friends; and on the 28th of September 1443 his reconciliation with Alphonso of See also:Naples enabled him to return to Rome. In consequence of the See also:absence of the pope, the Eternal City was once more little better than a ruin; and the work of restoration was immediately begun by Eugenius.
During the See also:chaos of the schism, France and Germany had adopted a semi-schismatic attitude: the former by the Pragmatic See also:Sanction of See also:Bourges (June 7, 1438); the latter by a See also:declaration of See also:neutrality in See also: The efforts of See also:Aeneas Silvius See also:Piccolomini brought matters into a channel more favourable to the Holy See; and an understanding with Germany was reached. This consummation was soon followed by the death of Eugenius (Feb. 23, 1447). No apter estimate of his See also:character can be found than the words of Aeneas Silvius himself: "He was a great-hearted See also:man; but his See also:chief See also:error was that he was a stranger to moderation, and regulated his actions, not by his ability, but by his wishes." From the See also:charge of nepotism he was entirely exempt; and, to the See also:present day, the purity of his See also:life has never been impugned even by the See also:voice of See also:faction. He was a See also:father to the poor and sick, in the highest sense of the word; and he See also:left behind him an enduring See also:monument in his amendment and regeneration, first of the religious orders, then of the clergy. Again, the patronage which he showed to art and artists was of the greatest importance. All that could be done in that cause, during this stormy See also:epoch, was done by Eugenius. It was by his See also:commission that Filarete prepared the still-extant bronzework of St See also:Peter's, and the See also:Chapel of the Holy Sacrament in the Vatican was painted by See also:Fiesole., On the, death of Eugenius IV. the situation was menacing enough, but, to the surprise and joy of all, Tomaso Parentucelli, cardinal of See also:Bologna, was elected without disturbance, as Pope See also:Nicholas V. With him the See also:Christian See also:Renaissance Nchoiss V ascended the papal See also:throne. He was the son of a 14474455. physician from See also:Sarzana, who was not too well endowed with the gifts of See also:fortune; and the boy, with all his talents, could only prosecute his studies at great See also:personal sacrifices. He was possessed of a deep-seated See also:enthusiasm for See also:science and art, of a sincerely pious and idealistic temperament, and of an ardent love for the Church. After his ordination, his great learning and stainless life led him to See also:office after office in the Church, each higher and more influential than the last. Not only did he love the studies of the humanist, but he himself was a Christian humanist. Yet among all his far-reaching plans for the encouragement of art and science, Nicholas V. had always the well-being of the Church primarily in view; and the highest See also:goal of his pontificate, which inaugurated the Maecenatian era of the popedom, was to ennoble that Church by the See also:works of See also:intellect and art. It is astonishing to contemplate how much he achieved, during his brief reign, in the cause of the Renaissance in both art and literature. True, his designs were even greater, but his See also:term of government was too See also:short to allow of their actual See also:execution. A simply gigantic See also:plan was See also:drawn out, with the assistance of the celebrated See also:Alberti, for the reconstruction of the Leonine City, the Vatican and St Peter's. The rebuilding of the last-named was rendered advisable by the See also:precarious condition of the structure, but stopped short in the early stages. In the Vatican, however, Fiesole completed the See also:noble frescoes, from the lives of St See also:Stephen and St See also:Lawrence, which are still preserved to us. Nicholas, again, See also:lent the See also:protection and encouragement of his powerful See also:arm to science as well as art, till the papal See also:court became a veritable domain of the See also:Muses. He supported all scientific enterprises with unlimited generosity, and the most famous savants of all countries flocked to Rome. Yet it is surprising—and scarcely excusable—that Nicholas, while selecting the men whom he considered necessary for his See also:literary work, passed over much which ought to have aroused See also:grave suspicion in his mind. Thus the active humanistic life, called into existence by the enthusiasm of the pope, was not without its dark side. Quite apart from the fact that
II
Rome became the scene of a chronique scandaleuse among these scholars, there was something unnatural in the predominance of the humanists in the Curia.
The fostering care of the science-loving pope extended also to the See also: A See also:special point of attaction in this jubilee of 1450 was the See also:canonization of Bernardino of See also:Siena; and, in spite of the See also:plague which broke out in Rome, the celebrations ran a brilliant course. It was the wish of the pope that the jubilee should be followed by a revival of religious life in all Christian countries. To put this project into execution, the Church opened her " treasuries of See also:grace," connected with the jubilee See also:dispensation, for the See also:peculiar benefit of those nations that had suffered most from the turmoils of the last few decades, or were prevented from visiting the Eternal City. Nicholas of Cusa was nominated See also:legate for Germany, and began the work of reformation by travelling through every See also:province in Germany dispensing blessings. It was under Nicholas V. that the last imperial See also:coronation was solemnized at Rome. There is a See also:touch of tragedy in the fact that, in the following See also:year, the pope saw his temporal sovereignty—even his life—threatened by a See also:conspiracy hatched among the adherents of the pseudo-See also:humanism. The See also:prime mover in the See also:plot, Stefano Porcaro, was executed. Nicholas had scarcely recovered from the See also:shock, when See also:news came of the See also:capture of See also:Constantinople by the See also:Turks; and his efforts to unite the Christian See also:powers against the Moslem failed. This darkened the evening of his life, and he died in the See also:night of the 24-25th of March 1455. From the universal standpoint of history the significance of Nicholas's pontificate lies in the fact that he put himself at the head of the See also:artistic and literary Renaissance. By this means he introduced a new epoch in the history of the papacy and of See also:civilization: Rome, the centre of ecclesiastical life, was now to become the centre of literature and art. The short reign of the Spaniard, Alphonso de See also:Borgia, as Pope See also:Calixtus III., is- almost completely filled by his heroic cauxtusltt.,efforts to arm Christendom for the See also:common See also:defence 1455.1458. against See also:Islam. Unfortunately all the warnings
and admonitions of the pope See also:fell on See also:deaf ears,
though he himself parted with his See also:mitre and See also:plate in order
to equip a See also:fleet against the Turks: The Mahommedans, indeed,
were severely punished at See also:Belgrade (1456), and in the See also:sea-
fight of Metelino (1457): but the indolence of the See also:European princes, who failed to push home the victory, rendered the success abortive. Bitterly disillusioned, Calixtus died on the 14th of See also:August 1458. His memory would be stainless but for the deep See also:shadow See also:cast on it by the See also:advancement which he conferred upon his relatives.
When Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini was elected pope as See also:Pius II. the papal throne was ascended by a man whose name was famous as poet, historian, humanist and statesman, p1as 1/ , and whose far-seeing See also:eye and exact knowledge of 1458-1464. affairs seemed peculiarly to See also:fit him for his position. On the other hand, the troubled and not impeccable past of the new pontiff was bound to excite some misgiving; while, 'at the same time, severe bodily suffering had brought old age on a man of but 53 years. In spite of his infirmity and the brief duration of his reign, Pius II. accomplished much for the restoration of the prestige and authority of the Holy See. His indefatigable activity on behalf of Western civilization, now threatened with extinction by the Ottomans, excites admiration and adds an undying lustre to his memory. If we except the Eastern question, Pius II. was principally exercised by the opposition to papal authority which was gaining ground in Germany and France. In the former See also:country the See also:movement was headed by the worldly See also:archbishop-elector Diether of See also:Mainz ;1 in the latter by See also: It is profoundly affecting to contemplate this man, a See also:mere See also:wreck from See also:gout, shrinking from no fatigue, no labour, and no personal sacrifices; disregarding the obstacles and difficulties thrown in his way by cardinals and temporal princes, whose fatal infatuation refused to see the peril which hung above them all; recurring time after time, with all his intellect and energy, to the realization of his See also:scheme; and finally adopting the high-hearted resolve of placing himself at the head of the crusade. Tortured by bodily, and still more by See also:mental suffering, the old pope reached See also:Ancona. There he was struck down by See also:fever; and on the 15th of August 1464 death had released him from all his afflictions—a tragic See also:close which has thrown a See also:halo See also:round his memory. In the See also:sphere of art he left an enduring monument in the Renaissance town of See also:Pienza which he built. The humanist Pius II. was succeeded by a splendour-loving Venetian, Pietro Barbo, the See also:nephew of Eugenius IV., who is known as Pope See also:Paul II. With his accession the situation altered; for he no longer made the See also:Turkish P/464a/1L-/4, 71. War the centre of his whole activity, as both his immediate predecessors had done. Nevertheless, he was far from indifferent to the See also:Ottoman danger. Paul took energetic measures against the principle of the absolute supremacy of the state as maintained by the Venetians and by Louis XI. of France; while in Bohemia he ordered the deposition of See also:George See also:Podebrad (Dec. 1466). The widely diffused view that this pope was an enemy of science and culture is unfounded. It may be traced back to Platina, who, resenting his See also:arrest, avenged himself by a See also:biographical See also:caricature. What the pope actually sought to combat by his dissolution of the Roman See also:Academy Diether von Isenburg (1412-1463), second son of Count Diether of Isenburg-Budingen; See also:rector of the university of See also:Erfurt, 1434; archbishop of Mainz, 1459. He led the movement for a reform of the Empire and the opposition to the papal encroachments, sup-porting the theory of church government enunciated at Constance and Basel and condemned in Pius II.'s See also:bull Execrabilis.—IED.] was simply the non-Christian tendency of the Renaissance, See also:standing as it did on a purely pagan basis—" the stench of heathendom," as See also:Dante described it. In other respects Paul II. encouraged men of learning and the art of See also:printing, and built the magnificent See also:palace of See also:San Marco, in which he established a noble collection of artistic treasures. The long pontificate of the Franciscan See also:Francesco della Rovere,. under the title of Pope See also:Sixtus IV., displays striking contrasts of See also:light and shade; and with him, begins x144 84.., 1471-1484. the series of the so-called " political popes." It (4 remains a lamentable fact that Sixtus IV. frequently subordinated the Father of Christendom to the Italian See also:prince, that he passed all See also:bounds in the preferment of his own family, and in many ways deviated into all too worldly courses. The decay of ecclesiastical discipline See also:grew to alarming proportions under Sixtus. During his reign crying abuses continued and grew in spite of certain reforms. The nepotism in which the pope indulged is especially inexcusable. His feud with Lorenzo de' See also:Medici culminated in the Pazzi conspiracy, the tragic sequel to which was the assassination of Giuliano de' Medici (See also:April 26, 1478). That the pope himself was guiltless of any See also:share in that atrocious See also:deed is beyond dispute; but it is deeply to be regretted that his name plays a part in the history of this conspiracy. Sixtus was far from See also:blind to the Turkish peril, but here also he was hampered by the indifference of the secular powers. Again, the close of his reign was marked by the See also:wars against See also:Ferrara and Naples, and subsequently against See also:Venice and the Colonnas; and these drove the question of a crusade completely into the background. In the affairs of the Church he favoured the mendicant orders, and declared against the cruel and unjust proceedings of the See also:Spanish See also:Inquisition. His nominations to the cardinalate were not happy. The College of Cardinals, and the Curia in general, grew more and more infected with worldliness during his pontificate. On the other side, however, the pope did splendid service to art and science, while to men of letters he allowed incredible freedom. The Vatican library was enriched and thrown open for public use, Platina—the historian of the popes—receiving the See also:post of librarian. The city of Rome was transfigured. At the papal order there arose the See also:Ponte Sisto, the See also:hospital of San Spirito, See also:Santa Maria del popolo, Santa Maria See also:delta See also:pace, and finally the Sistine Chapel, for the decoration of which the most famous Tuscan and Umbrian artists were summoned to Rome. This See also:fresco-See also:cycle, with its numerous allusions to contemporary history, is still preserved, and forms the noblest monument of the Rovere pope.
The reign of See also:Innocent VIII. is mainly occupied by his troubles with the faithless See also: The very See also:form of the bull, which merely sums up the various items of See also:information that had reached the pope, is enough to prove that the decree was not intended to bind anyone to belief in such things. Moreover the bull contained no essentially new, regulations as to witchcraft. It is absurd to make this document responsible for the introduction of the bloody persecution of witches; for, according to the Saclzsenspiegel, the civil See also:law already punished sorcery with death. The See also:action of Innocent VIII. was simply limited to defining the See also:jurisdiction of
the inquisitors with regard to magic. The bull merely authorized, in cases of sorcery, the See also:procedure of the canonical inquisition, which was conducted exclusively by spiritual See also:judges and differed entirely from that of the later See also:witch-trials. Even if the bull encouraged the persecution of witches, in so far as it encouraged the inquisitors to take See also:earnest action, there is still no valid ground for the See also:accusation that Innocent VIII. introduced the trial of witches and must See also:bear the responsibility for the terrible misery which was afterwards brought on humanity by that institution.
During the last three decades of the 15th See also:century the Roman Curia, and the College of Cardinals in particular, became increasingly worldly. This explains how on the See also: The cardinals opposed to Alexander, headed by Giuliano della Rovere, found protection and support with See also: He refused to yield the pope that obedience to which he was doubly pledged as a See also:priest and the member of an order. Even after his See also:excommunication (May 12, 1497) he continued to exercise the functions of his office, under the shelter of the secular arm. In the end he demanded a council for the deposition of the pope. His fall soon followed, when he had lost all ground in Florence; and his execution on the 23rd of May 1498 freed Alexander from a formidable enemy (see SAVONAnOLA). From the See also:Catholic standpoint Savonarola must certainly be condemned: mainly because he completely forgot the See also:doctrine of the Church that the sinful and vicious life of superiors, including the pope, is not competent to abrogate their jurisdiction. After the death of Charles VIII. Alexander entered into an agreement and See also:alliance with his successor Louis XII. The fruits of this compact were reaped by Cesare Borgia, who resigned his cardinal's See also:hat, became duke of See also:Valentinois, annihilated the See also:minor nobles of the papal state, and made himself the true See also:dictator of Rome. His soaring plans were destroyed by the death of Alexander VI., who met his end on the 18th of August 1503 by the Roman fever—not by See also:poison. The only See also:bright pages in the dark See also:chapter of Alexander's popedom are his efforts on behalf of the Turkish War (1499-1502), his activity for the See also:diffusion of See also:Christianity in See also:America, and his judicial awards (May 3-4, 1493) on the question of the colonial empires of See also:Spain and See also:Portugal, by which he avoided a bloody war. It is folly to speak of a donation of lands which did not belong to the pope, or to maintain that the freedom of the Americans was extinguished by the decision of Alexander VI. The expression " donation " simply referred to what had already been won under just title: the decree contained a deed of See also:gift, but it was an See also:adjustment between the powers concerned and the other European princes, not a parcelling out of the New See also:World and its inhabitants. The monarchs on whom the privilegium was conferred received a right of priority with respect to the provinces first discovered by them. Precisely as to-day inventions are guarded by See also:patents, and literary and artistic creations by the law of See also:copyright, so, at that period, the papal See also:ball and the protection of the Roman Church were an effective means for ensuring that a country should reap where she had sown and should maintain the territory she had discovered and conquered by arduous efforts; while other claimants, with predatory designs, were warned back by the ecclesiastical censorship. In the Vatican the memory of Alexander VI. is still perpetuated by the Appartamenta Borgia, decorated by See also:Pinturicchio with magnificent frescoes, and since restored by See also:Leo XIII. The short reign of the noble Pius III. (See also:Sept. 22–Oct. 18, 1503) witnessed the violent end of Cesare Borgia's dominion. As early as the 1st of November Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere was elected by the conclave as See also:Julius II. He was one of those personalities in which everything transcends the See also:ordinary See also:scale. He was endowed with great force of will, indomitable courage, extra- ordinary acumen, heroic constancy and a discrimi-Julius nating See also:instinct for everything beautiful. A nature 1503-1513. formed on great broad lines—a man of spontaneous impulses carrying away others as he himself was carried away, a genuine Latin in the whole of his being—he belongs to those imposing figures of the Italian Renaissance whose character is summarized in contemporary literature by the word terribile, which is best translated "extraordinary" or " magnificent." As cardinal Julius II. had been the adversary of Alexander VI., as pope he stood equally in diametrical opposition to his predecessor. The Borgia's foremost thought had been for his family; Julius devoted his effort to the Church and the papacy. His chief See also:idea was to revive the world-dominion of the popedom, but first to secure the independence and prestige of the Holy See on the basis of a firmly established and See also:independent territorial sovereignty. Thus two problems presented themselves: the restoration of the papal state, which had been reduced to chaos by the Borgias; and the liberation of the Holy See from the onerous dependence on France—in other words, the See also:expulsion of the French " barbarians " from Italy. His See also:solution of the first problem entitles Julius II. to See also:rank with Innocent III. and Cardinal See also:Albornoz as the third founder of the papal state. His active prosecution of the second task made the Rovere pope, in the eyes of Italian patriots, the See also:hero of the century. At the beginning of the struggle Julius had to endure many a hard See also:blow; but his courage never failed—or, at most, but for a moment—even after the French victory at See also:Ravenna, on See also:Easter See also:Sunday 1512. In the end the Swiss saved the Holy See; and, when Julius died the power of France had been broken in Italy, although the power of Spain had taken its place. The conflict with France led to a schism in the College of Cardinals, which resulted in the conciliabulum of See also:Pisa. Julius adroitly checkmated the cardinals by convening a general council, which was held ;n the Lateran. This assembly was also designed to See also:deal with the question of reform, when the pope was summoned from this world (Feb. 20–21, 1513). Of his ecclesiastical achievements the bull against See also:simony at papal elections deserves the most See also:honourable mention. Again, by his restoration of the papal state, after the frightful era of the Borgias, Julius became the saviour of the papal power. But this does not exhaust his significance; he was, at the same time, the renewer of the papal Maecenate in the domain of art. It is to his lasting praise that he took into his service the three greatest artistic geniuses of the time—Bramante, See also:Michelangelo and Raphael—and entrusted them with congenial tasks. See also:Bramante See also:drew out the plan for the new See also:cathedral of St Peter and the reconstruction of the Vatican. On the 18th of April 1506 the foundation-See also: In the See also:Camera della Segnatura he depicted the four intellectual powers—theology, See also:philosophy, See also:poetry and law. In the See also:Stanza d'Eliodoro Julius II. was visibly extolled as the Head of the Church, sure at all times of the aid of See also:Heaven?. As so often occurs in the history of the papacy, Julius II. was followed by a man of an entirely different type—Leo X. Though not yet 37 years of age, Giovanni de' Medici, Leo x., distinguished for his generosity, mildness and 1513-1521. See also:courtesy, was elevated to the pontifical See also:chair by the adroit manoeuvres of the younger cardinals. His policy—though officially he declared his intention of following in the steps of his predecessor—was at first extremely reserved. His ambition was to See also:play the role of peacemaker, and his conciliatory policy achieved many successes. Thus, in the very first year of his reign, he removed the schism which had broken out under Julius II. As a statesman Leo X. often walked by very crooked paths; but the reproach that he allowed his policy to be swayed exclusively by his family interests is unjustified. It may be admitted that he clung to his native Florence and to his family with warm See also:affection; but the really decisive See also:factor which governed his attitude throughout was his anxiety for the temporal and spiritual independence of the Holy See. The See also:conquest of See also:Milan by the French led to a personal interview at Bologna, where the " Concordat " with France was concluded. This document annulled the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, with its schismatic tendencies, but at the same time confirmed the preponderating See also:influence of the king upon the Gallican Church—a concession which in spite of its many dubious aspects at least made the See also:sovereign the natural defender of the Church and gave him the strongest See also:motive for remaining Catholic. The war for the duchy of See also:Urbino (1516–17) entailed disastrous consequences, as from it See also:dates the See also:complete disorganization of papal See also:finance. It was, moreover, a contributing cause of the conspiracy of Cardinal See also:Petrucci,2 the suppression of which was followed (July, 1517) by the creation of 31 new cardinals in one day. This—the greatest of recorded creations—turned the scale once and for all in favour of the papal authority and against the cardinals. The efforts of Leo to promote a crusade, which fall mainly in the years 1517 and 1518, deserve all recognition, but very various opinions have been held as to the attitude of the pope towards the Imperial election consequent on the death of See also:Maximilian I. The fundamental motive for his proceedings at that period was not nepotistic tendencies—which doubtless played their part, but only a secondary one—but his anxiety for the moral and temporal independence of the Holy See. For this reason Leo, from the very first, entertained no genuine See also:desire for the selection either of Charles V. or See also:Francis I. of France. By playing off one against the other he succeeded in holding both in suspense, and induced them to conclude agreements safeguarding the pope and the Medici. Of the two, 1 The closer connexion of these frescoes with contemporary history was first elucidated by Pastor, in his Geschichte der Papste, vol. iii., which also contains the most complete See also:account of the reign of this the second Rovere pope.—[En.[ 2 Alfonso Petrucci (d. 1517), a Sienese. He was degraded from the cardinalate by Leo X.—[Eo.l Plus III., 1503. the French king appeared the less dangerous, and the result was that Leo championed his cause with all his energies. Not till the See also:eleventh See also:hour, when the election of the See also:Habsburg, to whom he was entirely opposed, was seen to be certain did he give way. He thus at least avoided an open rupture with the new emperor—a rupture which would have been all the more perilous on account of the religious revolution now imminent in Germany. There the great See also:secession from Rome was brought about by Martin See also:Luther; but, in spite of his striking See also:personality, the upheaval which was destined to shatter the unity of the Western Church was not his undivided work. True, he was the most powerful See also:agent in the destruction of the existing order; but, in reality, he merely put the match to a See also:pile of inflammable materials which had been See also:collecting for centuries (see REFOiRMATION). A main cause of the cleavage in Germany was the position of ecclesiastical affairs, which—though by no means hopeless—yet stood in urgent need of emendation, and, combined with this, the deeply resented See also:financial See also:system of the Curia. Thus Luther assumed the leadership of a national opposition, and appeared as the champion who was to under-take the much-needed reform of abuses which clamoured for redress. The occasion for the schism was given by the conflict with regard to indulgences, in the course of which Luther was not content to attack actual grievances, but assailed the Catholic doctrine itself. In June 1518 the canonical proceedings against Luther were begun in Rome; but, owing to political influences, only slow progress was made. It was not till the 15th of June 1520 that his new See also:theology was condemned by the bull Exsurge, and Luther himself threatened with excommunication—a See also:penalty which was only enforced owing to his refusal to submit, on the 3rd of January 1521. The state of Germany, together with the unwise behaviour of Francis I., compelled Leo X. to side with Charles V. against the French king; and the united forces of the empire and papacy had achieved the most brilliant success in upper Italy, when Leo died unexpectedly, on the 1st of December 1521. The character of the first Medician pope shows a peculiar mixture of noble and ignoble qualities. With an insatiable love of See also:pleasure he combined a certain See also:external piety and a magnificent generosity in his charities. His financial See also:administration was disastrous, and led simply to See also:bankruptcy. On See also:music, See also:hunting, expensive feasts and theatrical performances See also:money was squandered, while, with unexampled optimism the pope was blind to the deadly earnestness of the times. Leo's name is generally associated with the idea of the Medicean era as a See also:golden age of science and art. This conception is only partially justified. The reputation of a greater Maecenas—ascribed to him by his eulogists—dwindles before a sober, See also:critical contemplation, and his undeniable merits are by no means equal to those which fame has assigned to him. The love of science and literature, which animated the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, frequently took the shape of literary dilettantism. In many respects the brilliance of this long and often vaunted Maecenate of Leo X. is more apparent than real. There are times when it irresistibly conveys the impression of dazzling See also:fireworks of which nothing remains but the memory. The genuine significance of Leo lies rather in the stimulus which he gave. From this point of view his deserts are undoubtedly great; and for that reason he possesses an indefeasible right to a certain share in the renown of the papacy as a civilizing agent of the highest rank. As a See also:patron of art Leo occupies a more exalted See also:plane. In this domain the first place must be assigned to the splendid achievements of Raphael, whom the pope entrusted with new and comprehensive commissions—the Stanza dell' incendio, the Logge, and the See also:tapestry-cartoons, the originals of the last named being now in See also:London. But, though illuminated by the rays of art, and loaded with the exuberant panegyrics of humanists and poets, the reign of the first Medicean pontiff, by its unbounded devotion to purely secular tendencies and its See also:comparative neglect of the Church herself proved disastrous for the See of St Peter. By a wonderful dispensation the successor to this See also:scion of the Medici was See also:Adrian VI.—a man who saw his noblest task, not in an artistic Maecenate, nor in the prosecution Adri of political designs, 1522a.10523': but in the reform of the Church in all its members. Careless of the glories of Renaissance art, a stranger to all worldly instincts, the earnest Netherlander inscribed on his banner the healing of the moral ulcers, the restoration of unity to the Church—especially in Germany—and the preservation of the West from the Turkish danger. How clearly he read the causes of religious decadence, how deeply he himself was convinced of the need of trenchant reform, is best shown by his instructions to Chieregati, his See also:nuncio to Germany, in which he laid the See also:axe to the See also:root of the See also:tree with unheard-of freedom. Unfortunately, it was all in vain. Luther and his adherents overwhelmed the noble pope with unmeasured abuse. The two great rivals, Francis I. and Charles V., were deaf to his admonitions to make common cause against the Turks. The intrigues of Cardinal See also:Soderini led, to a See also:breach with France and drove Adrian into the arms of the Imperial league. Soon afterwards, on the 14th of September 1523, he died. Long misunderstood and slandered, Adrian VI., the last German pope, is now by all parties ranked among the most revered and most worthy of the popes. No one now denies that he was one of those exceptional men, who without self-seeking spend their lives in the service of a cause and fight bravely against the stream of corruption. Even though, in his all too brief pontificate, he failed to attain any definite results, he at least fulfilled the first condition of any cure by laying See also:bare the seat of disease, gave an important impetus to the cause of the reform of the Church, and laid down the principles on which this was afterwards carried through. His activity, in fact, will always remain one of the brightest chapters in the history of the papacy. Under Leo X. Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, the See also:cousin of that pope, had already exercised a decisive influence upon Catholic policy; and the See also:tiara now fell to his See also:lot. Clement Clement VII.—so the new pontiff styled himself—was soon vrl., 1523-to discover the See also:weight of the See also:crown which he had 1534. gained. The See also:international situation was the most difficult imaginable, and altogether beyond the powers of the timorous, vacillating and irresolute Medician pope. His determination to stand aloof from the great See also:duel between Francis I. and Charles V. failed him at the first trial. He had not enough courage and perspicacity to await in See also:patience the result of the See also:race between France and Germany for the duchy of Milan—a contest which was decided at See also:Pavia (Feb. 24, 1525). The haughty victors found Clement on the side of their opponent, and he was forced into an alliance with the emperor (April 1, 1525). The overweening arrogance of the Spaniards soon drove the pope back into the ranks of their enemies. On the 22nd of May 1526 Clement acceded to the League of See also:Cognac, and joined the Italians in their struggle against the Spanish supremacy. This step he was destined bitterly to repent. The See also:tempest descended on the pope and on Rome with a violence which cannot be paralleled, even in the days of See also:Alaric and Genseric, or of the See also:Norman See also:Robert Guiscard. On the 6th of May 1527 the Eternal City was stormed by the Imperial troops and subjected to appalling devastation in the famous See also:sack. Clement was detained for seven months a prisoner in the See also:castle of St Angelo. He then went into exile at See also:Orvieto and See also:Viterbo, and only on the 6th of October 1528 returned to his desolate residence. After the fall of the French dominion in Italy he made his peace with the emperor at See also:Barcelona (June 29, 1529); in return for which he received the assistance of Charles in re-establishing the See also:rule of the Medici in Florence. During the Italian turmoil the schism in Germany had made such alarming progress that it now proved impossible to See also:bridge the chasm. With regard to the question of a council the pope was so obsessed by doubts and fears that he was unable to advance a single step; nor, till the day of his death could he break off his pitiful vacillation between Charles V. and Francis I. While large portions of Germany were lost to the Church the revolt from Rome proceeded apace in See also:Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries. To add to the disasters, the See also:divorce of Henry VIII. led to the English schism. Whether another head of the Church could have prevented the defection of See also:England is of course an idle question. But Clement VII. was far from possessing the qualities which would have enabled him to show a bold front to the ambitious Cardinal See also:Wolsey and the masterful and passionate Henry VIII. At the death of Clement (Sept. 25, 1534), the complete disruption of the Church seemed inevitable. When all seemed lost salvation was near. Even in the reign of the two Medici popes the way which was to See also:lead to better things had been silently paved within the Church. Under Leo X. himself there had been formed in Rome, in the See also:Oratory of the Divine Love, a body of excellent men of strictly Catholic sentiments. It was by members of this Oratory—especially St Gaetano di Tiene, Carafa (later Paul IV.), and the great bishop of See also:Verona, Giberti—that the foundations of the Catholic reformation were laid. Under Clement VII. the See also:establishment of new religious orders—Theatines, Somascians, Barnabites and Capuchins—had sown the seeds of a new life in the ancient Church. The See also:harvest was reaped during the long pontificate of the See also:Farnese pope, Paul III. With his accession Pa°Idevotion to See also:religion and the Church began to regain I534-I549. their old mastery. True, Paul III. was not a representative of the Catholic reformation, in the full sense of the words. In many points, especially his great nepotism—witness the promotion of the worthless See also:Pier See also:Luigi Farnesehe remained, even as pope, a true See also:child of the Renaissance period in which he had risen to greatness. Nevertheless he possessed the necessary adaptability and acumen to enable him to do See also:justice to the demands of the new age, which imperatively demanded that the interests of the Church should be the first See also:consideration. Thus, in the course of his long reign he did valuable work in the cause of the Catholic reformation and prepared the way for the Catholic restoration. It was he who regenerated the College of Cardinals by leavening it with men of ability, who took in hand the reform of the Curia, confirmed the Jesuit Order, and finally brought the Council of See also:Trent into existence (Sessions I.–X. of the council, first period, 1545–1549). In order to check the progress of Protestantism in Italy Paul III. founded the See also:Congregation of the Inquisition (1542). Political See also:differences, and the transference of the council to Bologna in 1547, brought the pope into See also:sharp collision with the emperor, who now attempted by means of the See also:Interim to regulate the religious affairs of Germany according to his wishes —but in vain. The disobedience of his favourite Ottavio hastened the death of the old pope (Nov. 10, 1549). Under the Farnese pope art enjoyed an See also:Indian summer. The most important work for which he was responsible is the " Last See also:Judgment " of Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel. In 1547 Michelangelo was further entrusted with the superintendence of the reconstruction of St Peter's. He utilized his power by rejecting the innovations of See also:Antonio da See also:Sangallo, saved the plan of Bramante, and left behind him sufficient drawings to serve the completion of the famous See also:cupola. See also:Titian painted Paul's portrait, and Guglielmo della Porta cast the See also:bronze statue which now adorns his grave in St Peter's. After a protracted conclave Giovanni Maria del Monte was elected, on the 7th of February 1550, as Pope Julius III. He /See also:alias III , submitted to the emperor's demands and again See also:con-1550-I555. vened the council (Sessions XI.–XVI., second period), but was obliged to suspend it on the 22nd of April 1552, in consequence of the war between Charles V. and See also:Maurice of See also:Saxony. From this time onwards the pope failed to exhibit requisite energy. In his beautiful See also:villa before the Porta del Popolo he sought to banish political and ecclesiastical anxieties from his mind. Yet even now he was not wholly inactive. The religious affairs of England especially engaged his attention; and the nomination of Cardinal See also:Pole as his legate to that country, on the death of See also:Edward VI. (1553), was an extremely adroit step. That the measure was fruitless was not the See also:fault of Julius III., who died on the 23rd of March 1555. The feeble regime of Julius had made it evident that a pope of another type was necessary if the papal see were to preserve the moral and political influence which it had regained under Paul III. On the loth of April 1555, after a conclave which lasted five days, the reform party secured /See also:MarL/c5ell55us . the election of the distinguished See also:Marcellus II. Unfortunately, on the 1st of May, an attack of See also:apoplexy cut short the life of this pope, who seemed peculiarly adapted for the reformation of the Church. On the 23rd of May 1555 Gian Pietro Carafa, the strictest of the strict, was elected as his successor, under the title of Paul IV. Though already 79 years of age, he was animated by the fiery zeal of youth, and he employed the most drastic methods for executing the necessary reforms See also:ant combating the advance of Protestantism. Always an opponent _."v , 1555-1559. of the Spaniards, Paul IV., in the most violent and impolitic See also:fashion, declared against the Habsburgs. The conflict with the Colonna was soon followed by the war with Spain, which, in spite of the French alliance, ended so disastrously, in 1557, that the pope henceforward devoted himself exclusively to' ecclesiastical affairs. The sequel was the end of the nepotism and the relentless prosecution of reform within the Church. Protestantism was successfully eradicated in Italy; but the pope failed to prevent the secession of England. After his death the rigour of the Inquisition gave rise to an insurrection in Rome. The Venetian See also:ambassador says of Paul IV. that, although all feared his strictness, all venerated his learning and See also:wisdom. The reaction against the See also:iron administration of Paul IV. explains the fact that, after his decease, a more worldly-minded pope was again elected in the person of Cardinal Giovanni Angelo de' Medici—Pius IV. P55911565 In striking contrast to his predecessor he favoured the Habsburg. A suit was instituted against the Carafa; and Cardinal Caraf a was even executed. To his own relatives, however, Pius IV. accorded no great influence, the advancement of his distinguished nephew, Carlo See also:Borromeo (q.v.)' being singularly fortunate for the Church. The most important See also:act of his reign was the reassembling of the Council of Trent (Sessions XVII.–XXV., third period, 1562–1563). It was an impressive moment, when, on the 4th of December 1563, the great ecumenical synod of the Church came to a close. Till the last it was obliged to contend with the most formidable difficulties: yet it succeeded in effecting many notable reforms and in See also:illuminating and crystallizing the distinctive doctrines of Catholicism. The breach with the See also:Protestant Reformation was now final, and all Catholics See also:felt themselves once more united and brought into intimate connexion with the centre of unity at Rome (see TRENT, COUNCIL or).
The three great successors of Pius IV. inaugurate the heroic age of the Catholic reformation and restoration. All three were of humble extraction, and sprang from the See also:people in the full sense of the phrase. Pius V., P/as
1566-/572.
formerly Michele Ghisleri and a member of the Dominican Order observed even as pope the strictest rules of the brotherhood, and was already regarded as a See also:saint by his contemporaries. For Rome, in especial, he completed the task of reform. The Curia, once so corrupt, was completely metamorphosed, and once more became a rallying point for men of stainless character, so that it produced a profound impression even on non-Catholics; while the See also:original methods of St See also: But his greatest joy was that he succeeded where Pius II. had failed, despite all his efforts, by bringing to a head an enterprise against the Turks—then masters of the Mediterranean. He negotiated an alliance between the Venetians and Spaniards, contributed See also:ships and soldiers, and secured the election of See also:Don John of See also:Austria to the supreme command. He was privileged to survive the victory of the Christians at See also:Lepanto; but on the 1st of May in the following year he died, as piously as he had lived. The last pope to be canonized, his pontificate marks the zenith of the Catholic reformation. The renewed vigour which this internal reformation had infused into the Church was now See also:manifest in its external effects; and Pius V., the pope of reform, was followed by the popes of the Catholic restoration. These, without intermitting the work of reformation, endeavoured by every means to further the outward expansion of Catholicism. On the one hand See also:missions were despatched to America, See also:India, See also:China and See also:Japan: on the other, a strenuous attempt was made to reannex the conquests of Protestantism. In a word, the age of the Catholic restoration was beginning—a movement which has been misnamed the See also:counter Reformation. In this period, the newly created religious orders were the right arm of the papacy, especially the See also:Jesuits and the See also:Capuchins. In place of the earlier supineness, the See also:battle was now joined all along the See also:line. Every-where, in Germany and France, in Switzerland and the See also:Low Countries, in Poland and Hungary, efforts were made to check the current of Protestantism and to re-establish the orthodox faith. This activity extended to wider and wider. areas, and enterprises were even set on See also:foot to regain England, See also:Sweden and See also:Russia for the Church. This universal outburst of energy for the restoration of Catholicism, which only came to a standstill in the See also:middle of the 17th century, found one of its C,pgry most zealous promotors in Ugo Boncompagnixui., Pope Gregory XIII. Though not of an ascetic 1572-1585. nature, he followed unswervingly in the path of his predecessors by consecrating his energies to the See also:translation of the reformatory decrees into practice. At the same time he showed himself anxious to further the cause of ecclesiastical instruction and Catholic science. He created a special Congregation to deal with episcopal affairs, and organized the Congregation of the See also:Index, instituted by Pius V. On behalf of the diffusion of Catholicism throughout the world he spared no efforts; and wherever he was able he supported the great restoration. He was especially active in the erection and encouragement of educational institutions. In Rome he founded the splendid College of the Jesuits; and he patronized the Collegium Germanicum of St See also:Ignatius; while, at the same time, he found means for the endowment of English and Irish colleges. In fact, his generosity for the cause of See also:education was so unbounded that he found himself in financial difficulties. Gregory did See also:good service, moreover, by his reform of the See also:calendar which bears his name, by his emended edition of the Corpus See also:juris canonici and by the creation of nunciatures. That he celebrated the night of St See also:Bartholomew was due to the fact, that, according to his information, the step was a last resort to ensure the preservation of the royal family and the Catholic religion from the attacks of the revolutionary Huguenots. In his political enterprises he was less fortunate. He proved unable to devise a common plan of action on the part of the Catholic princes against See also: On the death of Gregory XIII., Felice Peretti, cardinal of Montalto, a member of the Franciscan order, ascended the Apostolic throne as Sixtus V. (April 1585-August sixths 1585-1.5990 0. 159o). His first task was the extirpation of the 1585-1 bandits and the restoration of order within the papal state. In the course of a year the drastic measures of this See also:born ruler made this state the safest country in See also:Europe. He introduced a strictly ordered administration, encouraged the sciences, and enlarged the Vatican library, See also:housing it in a ;splendid See also:building erected for the purpose in the Vatican itself. He was an active patron of See also:agriculture and See also:commerce: he eveninterested himself in the draining of the Pontine marshes. The financial system he almost completely reorganized. With a boldness worthy of Julius II., he devised the most gigantic schemes for the annihilation of the Turkish Empire and the conquest of See also:Egypt and See also:Palestine. Elizabeth of England he wished to restore to the Roman obedience either by See also:conversion or by force; but these projects were shattered by the destruction of the Spanish See also:Armada. Down to his death the pope kept a vigilant eye on the troubles in France. Here his great See also:object was to See also:save France for the Catholic religion, and, as far as possible, to secure her position as a power of the first rank. To this fundamental See also:axiom of his policy he remained faithful throughout all vicissitudes. In Rome itself Sixtus displayed extraordinary activity. The Pincian, the Esquiline, and the See also:south-easterly part of the Caelian hills received essentially their present form by the creation of the Via Sistina, Felice, delle Quattro See also:Fontane, di Sta Croce in Gerusalemme, &c.; by the buildings at Sta Maria See also:Maggiore, the Villa Montalto, the reconstruction of the Lateran, and the See also:aqueduct of the Felice, which partially utilized the Alexandrina and cost upwards of 300,000 scudi. The erection of the obelisks of the Vatican, the Lateran, the Piazza del Popolo and the square behind the See also:tribune of Sta Maria Maggiore lent a lustre to Rome which no other city in the world could rival. The columns of See also:Trajan and See also:Antoninus were restored and bedecked with gilded statues of the Apostles; nor was this the only See also:case in which the high-minded pope made the monuments of antiquity subservient to Christian ideas. His See also:principal architect was Domenico See also:Fontana, who, in conjunction with Guglielmo della Porta, completed the uniquely beautiful cupola of St Peter's which had already been designed by Michelangelo in a detailed model. In Santa Maria Maggiore the pope erected the noble Sistine Chapel, in which he was laid to rest. Indeed, the monumental character of Rome dates from this era. The organizing activity of Sixtus V. was not, however, restricted to the Eternal City, but extended to the whole administration of the Church. The number of cardinals was fixed at seventy—six bishops, fifty priests and fourteen deacons. In 1588 followed the new regulations with respect to the Roman Congregations, which hence-forth were to be fifteen in number. Thus the pope laid the foundations of that wonderful and silent See also:engine of universal government by which Rome still rules the Catholics of every land on the face of the globe. When we reflect that all this was achieved in a single pontificate of but five years' duration, the energy of Sixtus V. appears simply astounding. He was, without doubt, by far the most important of the post-Tridentine popes, and his latest biographer might well say that he died overweighted with services to the Church and to humanity. (L. v. P.) IV: Period from 1590 to 1870. The history of the papacy from 1590 to 1870 falls into four main periods: (1) 1590-1648; territorial expansion, definitely checked by the peace of See also:Westphalia; (2) 1648-1789; waning prestige, financial embarrassments, futile reforms; (3) 1789-1814; revolution and See also:Napoleonic reorganization; (4) 1814-1870; restoration and centralization. 1. 1590-1648. The keynote of the counter Reformation had been struck by the popes who immediately preceded this period. They sought to reconquer Europe for the Roman Catholic Church. In the overthrow of the Spanish Armada they had already received a great defeat; with the Peace of Westphalia the Catholic advance was baffled. Sixtus V. was succeeded in rapid See also:succession by three popes: Urban VII., who died on the 27th of September 1590, after a papacy of only 12 days; Gregory XIV. (Dec. 1590 to Oct. 1591); Innocent IX. (Oct. to Dec. 1591). The first noteworthy pontiff of the period was Clement VIII„ who gained a vast See also:advantage by allying the papacy with the rising power of France. Since 1559 the popes had clement been without exception in favour of Spain, which, vu,., firmly possessed of Milan on the See also:north and of Naples 1592d60s. on the south, held the States of the Church as in a See also:vice, and thereby dominated the politics of the See also:peninsula. After Henry IV. had taken See also:Paris at the See also:price of a See also:mass, it became possible for the popes to play off the Bourbons against the Habsburgs; but the See also:transfer of favour was made so gradually that the opposition of the papacy to Spain did not become open till just before Clement VIII. passed off the See also:stage. His successor, Leo XI., undisguisedly French in sympathy, reigned but twenty-seven days—a sorry return for the 300,000 Leo X/., 1605. ducats which his election is rumoured to have cost Henry IV. Under Paul V. Rome was successful in some minor negotiations with Savoy, See also:Genoa, Tuscany and Naples; but Venice, under the leadership of See also:Paolo See also:Sarpi (q.v.), proved unbending under See also:ban and See also:interdict: the state defiantly upheld its sovereign rights, kept most of the clergy at their posts, and expelled the recalcitrant Jesuits. When peace was arranged through French See also:mediation in 1607 the papacy had lost greatly in prestige: it was evident that the once terrible interdict was antiquated, wherefore it has never since been employed against the entire territory of a state. During the second and third decades of the 17th century the most coveted See also:bit of Italian See also:soil was the Valtelline. If Spain could gain this Alpine valley her territories would touch those of Austria, so that the Habsburgs north of the See also:Alps could send troops to the aid of their Spanish See also:cousins against Venice, and Spain in turn could help to subdue the Protestant princes of Ger- many in the See also:Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). From the See also:Grisons, who favoured France and Venice, Spain seized the Valtelline in 162o, incidentally uprooting heresy there by the See also:massacre of six See also:hundred Protestants. Paul V. repeatedly lamented that he was unable to oppose such Spanish aggressions without extend- See also:ing protection to heretics. This See also:scruple was, however, not shared by his successor, Gregory XV., who secured GregoryXV., the consent of the powers to the occupation of the 1621-1623. Valtelline by papal troops, a See also:diplomatic victory destined, however, to lead ere long to humiliation. Gregory's brief but notable pontificate marks nevertheless the high- See also:tide of the counter Reformation. Not for generations had the prospects for the ultimate annihilation of Protestantism been brighter. In the Empire the collapse of the Bohemian revolt led ultimately to the merciless repression of the Evangelicals The in Bohemia (1627), and in the hereditary lands of Counter. Austria (1628), as well as to the transference of the Reformation. electoral dignity from the Calvinistic elector of the See also:Palatinate to the staunchly Catholic Maximilian of See also:Bavaria. In France the Huguenots were shorn of almost all their military power, a See also:process completed by the fall of La Rochelle in 1628. In See also: If it was See also:Richelieu and not the pope who was the real arbiter of destinies from 1624 to 1642, Urban VIII. was usually content. In Italy he supported France against Spain in the Urban VIII., controversy over the succession to See also:Mantua (1627--1623-1644. 1631). In the Empire he manifested his antipathy to the overshadowing Habsburgs by plotting for a time to carry the next imperial election in favour of Bavaria. He is said to have rejoiced privately over See also:Swedish victories, and certainly it was unerring instinct which told him that the great European conflict was no longer religious but dynastic. Anti-Spanish to the core, he became the greatest papal militarist since Julius II.; but Tuscany, See also:Modena and Venice checkmated him in his ambitious attempt to conquer the duchy of See also:Parma. Like most of the papal armies of the last three centuries, Urban's troops, distinguished themselves by wretched See also:strategy, cowardice in rank and See also:file, and a See also:Fabian avoidance of fighting which, discreet as it may be in the field of diplomacy, has invariably failed to save Rome on the field of battle. The States of the Church were enlarged during this period by the reversion of two important fiefs—namely, Ferrara (1598) and Urbino (1631). Increase of territory, `so far The papal from filling the papal See also:treasury, but postponed for states. the moment the progressive pauperization of the people. After See also:annexation, the city of Ferrara sank rapidly from her perhaps artificial prosperity to the dead level, losing two-thirds of her See also:population in the process. The financial difficulties of Italy were due to many causes, notably to a shifting of See also:trade routes; but those of the papal states seem caused chiefly by misgovernment. Militarism may account for much of the tremendous deficit under Urban VIII.; but the real See also:cancer was nepotism. The disease was inherent in the body politic. Each pope, confronted by the spectre of Nepotism. feudal anarchy, felt he could rely truly only on those utterly dependent on himself; consequently he raised his own relations to See also:wealth and influence. This method had helped the House of See also:Valois to consolidate its power; but what was tonic for a See also:dynasty was death to a state whose headship was elective. The relations of one pope became the enemies of the next; and each pontiff governed at the expense of his successors. Under Clement VIII. the Aldobrandini, more splendidly under Paul V. the See also:Borghesi, with canny haste under the short-lived Gregory XV. the Lodovisi, with unparalleled rapacity Urban's See also:Barberini enriched themselves from a chronically depleted treasury. To raise money offices were systematically sold, and issue after issue of the two kinds of monti-securities, which may be roughly described as government bonds and as life annuities, was marketed at ruinous rates. More than a See also:score of years after the Barberini had dropped the reins of power Alexander VII. said they alone had burdened the state with the See also:payment of 483,000 scudi of See also:annual See also:interest, a tremendous See also:item in a See also:budget where the income was perhaps but 2,000,000. For a while interest charges consumed 85 % of the income of the government. Skilful refunding postponed the day of evil, but See also:cash on hand was too often a temptation to See also:plunder. The financial woes of the next period, which is one of decline, were largely the See also:legacy of this age of See also:glory. The common people, as always, had to pay. The farming of exorbitant taxes, coupled as it was too often with dishonest concessions to the tax See also:farmer, made the over-burdened peasantry drink the doubly bitter See also:cup of exploitation and injustice. Economic See also:distress increased the number of See also:highway robberies, these in turn lamed commercial intercourse. The See also:tale of these glories, with their attendant woes, does not exhaust the history of the papacy. Not as diplomatists, not as See also:governors, but as successive heads of a spiritual See also:kingdom, did the popes win their grandest triumphs. At a time when the non-Catholic theologians were chiefly small See also:fry, See also:bent on Paul v., 1605-1621. See also:petty or sulphurous polemics, great Jesuit teachers like See also:Bellarmine (d. 1621) laid See also:siege to the very foundations of the controver- Protestant citadel. These thinkers performed for siaiand the unity of the faith in France and in the Missionary Catholic states of Germany services of transcendent Triumphs. merit, exceeding far in importance those of their flourishing See also:allies, the Inquisitions of Spain, Italy, and of the Spanish Netherlands (see INQuISITION). But the most fundamental spiritual progress of the papacy was made by its devoted missionaries. While the See also:majority of Protestant leaders left the conversion of the See also:heathen to some remote and inscrutable interposition of See also:Providence, the Jesuits, See also:Franciscans, See also:Dominicans and kindred orders were busily engaged in making Roman Catholics of the nations brought by See also:Oriental commerce or See also:American colonial enterprise into contact with Spain, Portugal and France. Though many of the spectacular triumphs of the See also:cross in See also:Asia and See also:Africa proved to be evanescent, nevertheless South America stands the impressive memorial of the greatest forward movement in the history of the papacy: a solidly Roman See also:continent. 2. 1648-1789. From the close of the Thirty Years' War to the outbreak of the French Revolution the papacy suffered abroad waning political prestige; at home, progressive financial embarrassment accompanied by a series of inadequate govern-mental reforms; and in the world at large, gradual diminution of reverence for spiritual authority. From slow beginnings these factors kept gaining momentum until they compassed the overthrow of the mighty order of the Jesuits, and culminated in the revolutionary spoliation of the Church.
At the election of Innocent X. (1644-1655) the favour of the
Curia was transferred from France, where it had rested for over
See also:forty years, to the House of Habsburg, where it
remained, save for the brief reign of Clement IX.
(1667-1669), for See also:half a century. The era of tension
with France coincides with the earlier years of Louis. XIV.
(1643-1715); its main causes were the Jansenist and the Gallican
controversies (see See also:JANSENISM and See also:GALLICANISM). The French
crown was willing to See also:sacrifice the Jansenists, who disturbed
that dead level of uniformity so grateful to autocrats; but
Gallicanism touched its very prerogatives, and was
See also:Jansen"' a point of See also:honour which could never be abandoned and
Qallicanism. outright. The See also:regalia controversy, which broke
- out in 1673, led up to the classic declaration of the Gallican clergy of 1682; and, when aggravated by a conflict over the See also:immunity of the palace of the French ambassador at Rome, resulted in 1688 in the suspension of diplomatic relations with Innocent XI., the imprisonment of the papal nuncio, and the seizure of See also:Avignon and the Venaissin. So pronounced an enemy of French preponderance did Innocent become that he approved the League of See also:Augsburg, and was not sorry to see the Catholic James II., whom he considered a See also:tool of Louis, thrust from the throne of England by the Protestant See also: Fear of the coalition, however, led the See also:Grand Monarch to make peace with Innocent XII. (1601-1700). The good relations with France were but a truce, for the See also:Bourbon powers became so mighty in the 18th century that they practically ignored the territorial interests of the papacy. Thus Clement XI. (1700—1721), who espoused the losing Habsburg side in the War of the Spanish Succession, saw his nuncio excluded from the negotiations leading to the Peace of See also:Utrecht, while the See also:lay signatories disposed of See also:Sicily in See also:defiance of his alleged overlordship. Similarly Clement XII. (1730—1740) looked on impotently when the sudden Bourbon conquest of Naples in the War of the See also:Polish Succession set at nought his claims to feudal sovereignty, and established Tannucci as See also:minister of justice, a position in which for forty-three years he regulated the relations of church and See also:estate after a method most repugnant to Rome. No better fared Clement's See also:medieval rights to Parma; nor could the sagacious and popular Benedict XIV. (1740—1758), who refused to See also:press obsolete claims, either keep the See also:foreign armies in the War of the See also:Austrian Succession from trespassing on the States of the Church or prevent the ignoring at the Peace of See also:Aix-la- Chapelle of the papal overlordship over Parma and See also:Piacenza. In fact, since the doctrinaire protest of Innocent X. against the. Peace of Westphalia, at almost every important See also:settlement of European boundaries the popes had been ignored or other-See also:wise snubbed. Not for two centuries had the political prestige of the papacy been See also:lower. Moreover, a feeling of revulsion against the Jesuits was sweeping over western Europe: they were accused of being the incarnation of the most baneful principles, political, intellectual, moral; and though Clement XIII. (1958-1769) protected them against the pressure of the Bourbon courts, his successor Clement XIV. Suppression (1769-1774) was forced in 1773 to disband the oetu Jesui ts. See also:army of the See also:Black Pope (see JESUITS). The sacri- fice of these trusted soldiers failed however to sate the thirst of the new age. Pius VI. (1795-1799), was treated with scant respect by his neighbours. Naples refused him See also:tribute; See also:Joseph II. of Austria politely but resolutely introduced fundamental Gallican reforms (" Josephism "); in x786 at the Synod of See also:Pistoia (q.v.) Joseph's See also:brother See also:Leopold urged similar principles on Tuscany, while in Germany the very archbishops were conspiring by the Punctation of See also:Ems to aggrandize themselves like true Febronians, at the expense of the pope (see See also:FEBRONIANIsM). These aggressions of monarchy and the episcopate were rendered vain, outside the Habsburg dominions, by the revolution; and to the Habsburg dominions the clerical revolution of 1790 caused the loss of what is to-day See also:Belgium. However, the See also:deluge which shattered the opposition to Rome in the great national churches submerged for a time the papacy itself. - In the States of the Church, during the first part of the period the outstanding feature in the history of the Temporal Power is the overthrow of nepotism; in the second, a dull conflict with See also:debt. The chief enemies of nepotism were Alexander VII. (1655-1667), who dignified the secretaryship of state and gave it its present pre-See also:eminence by refusing to deliver it up to one of his relations; and Innocent XII. (1691-1700), whose bull Romanum decet pontificem ordered that no pope should make more than one nephew cardinal, and should not See also: (1758-1769) made a forced See also:loan. The stoppage of payments from Bourbon countries during the Jesuit struggle brought the annual deficit to nearly 500,000 scudi. Under Pius VI. (1775-1799) the emission of paper money, followed by an unsuccessful attempt to See also:market government securities, produced a panic. By 1783 the taxes had been farmed for years in advance and the treasury was in desperate straits. See also:Retrenchment often cut to the See also:bone; wise reforms shattered on the inexperience or corruption of officials. Grand attempts to increase the national wealth usually cost the government more in fixed charges of interest than they yielded in rentals or taxes. The States of the Church, like France, were on the brink of bankruptcy. From this disgrace they were saved by a more imminent catastrophe—the Revolution. Foreign Relations. The States of the Church. 714 The revolt against spiritual authority belongs rather to the history of See also:modern thought than to that of the papacy. The Intellectual Renaissance and Protestantism had their effect in movement producing that Enlightenment which swept over against the western Europe in the 18th century. Although Papacy. See also:Descartes died in 165o in the communion of the Church, his philosophy contained seeds of revolt; and the sensualism of See also:Locke, popularized in Italy by See also:Genovesi, pre-pared the way for revolution. In an age when See also:Voltaire preached See also:toleration and the great penologist See also:Beccaria attacked the death-penalty and See also:torture, in the States of the Church heretics were still liable to torture, the relapsed to See also:capital See also:punishment; and in a backward country like Spain the single reign of Philip V. (1700-1746) had witnessed the burning of over a thousand heretics. If ecclesiastical authority fostered what was commonly regarded as intolerant obscurantism, to be enlightened meant to be prepared in spirit for that reform which soon developed into the Revolution. 3. 1789-1814. In the See also:decade previous to the outbreak of the French Revolution the foreign policy of Pius VI. had been The Papacy directed chiefly against decentralization, while his and the chief aim at home was to avoid bankruptcy by in- Revolution. creasing his income. From 1789 on the French situation absorbed his attention. France, like the States of the Church, was facing financial ruin; but France did what the government of priests could not: namely, saved the day by the See also:confiscation and See also:sale of ecclesiastical See also:property. It was not the aim of the Constituent Assembly to pauperize or annihilate the Church; it purposed to reorganize it on a juster basis. These reforms, embodied in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, were part of the new Fundamental Law of the kingdom. The majority of the priests and bishops refused to swear assent to what they held to be an invasion of the divine right of the hierarchy, and after some months of unfortunate indecision Pius VI. (1775-1799) formally condemned it. Thence- forward France treated the papacy as an inimical power. The sullen toleration of the non-juring priests changed into sanguinary persecution. The harrying was halted in 1795; and soon after the See also:directory had been succeeded by the consulate, the Catholic religion was re-established by the concordat of 18o1. From 1990 on, however, the rising power of France had been directed against Rome. In September 1791 France annexed Avignon and the Venaissin, thus removing for ever that territorial See also:pawn with whose threatened ioss the French monarchs had for centuries disciplined their popes. In 1793 Hugon de See also:Bassville (q.v.), a diplomatic agent of France, was murdered at Rome, a deed not avenged until the Italian victories of See also:Bonaparte. In the peace of See also:Tolentino (Feb. 1797) the pope surrendered his claims to Avignon, the Venaissin, Bologna, Ferrara and the Romagna; he also promised to disband his worthless army, to yield up certain treasures of art, and to pay a large See also:indemnity. See also:Bona- parte believed that after these losses the temporal power would collapse of its own weight; but so peaceful a solution was not to be. During republican agitation at Rome the French general Duphot was killed, a French army advanced on the city, and carried the aged pontiff a prisoner of war to See also:Valence in Pis vm, 0 18Dauphine, where he died on the 29th of August 1 18004823. 799• His successor Pius VII., elected at Venice on the 14th of the following March, soon entered Rome and began his reign auspiciously by appointing as secretary of state Ercole See also:Consalvi (q.v.), the greatest papal diplomatist of the 19th century. The political juncture was favourable for a reconciliation with France. In the concordat of 1801 the papacy concordat of 1801. recognized the validity of the sales of Church property, and still further reduced the number of dioceses; it provided that the government should appoint and support the archbishops and bishops, but that the pope should confirm them; and France recognized the temporal power, though shorn of Ferrara, Bologna and the Romagna. The supplementary Organic Articles of April 1802, however, centralized the administration of the Church in the hands of the First See also:Consul; and some of these one-sided regulations[1S9o-1870 were considered by Rome to be See also:minute and oppressive; nevertheless, the Napoleonic arrangements remained in force, with but brief exceptions, till the year 1905. The indignation of the pope and his advisers was not deep enough to prevent the ratification in 1803 of a somewhat similar concordat for the Italian See also:Republic. In 1804 Pius consented to anoint See also:Napoleon emperor, thus casting over a conquered crown the halo of See also:legitimacy. The era of good feeling was, however, soon ended by See also:friction, which arose at a number of points. At length, in 1809, Napoleon annexed the papal states; and Pius, who excommunicated the invaders of his territory, was removed to France. The See also:captive was, however, by no means powerless; by refusing canonical institution to the French bishops he involved the ecclesiastical system of Napoleon in inextricable confusion. After the return from See also:Moscow the emperor negotiated with his prisoner a new and more exacting concordat, but two months later the repentant pope abrogated this treaty and declared all the See also:official acts of the new French bishops to be invalid. By this time Napoleon was tottering to his fall; shortly before the See also:catastrophe of See also:Elba he allowed the pope to return to the States of the Church. Pius entered Rome amid great rejoicing on the 24th of May 1814, a day which marks the beginning of a new era in the history of the papacy. In September of the same year, by the bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, he reconstituted the Society of Jesus. Though the relations with France dominated the papal policy during the revolutionary period, the affairs of Germany received no small share of attention. The peace of See also:Luneville (1801) established the French boundary at the See also:Rhine; and the German princes who thereby lost lands west of the See also:river were indemnified by the secularization of ecclesiastical secutariza territories to the east. The scheme of readjust- tions of ment, known as the Enactment of the Delegates of 1803. the Empire (Reichsdeputationshauptschluss) of 1803, secularized practically all the ecclesiastical states of Germany. Thus at one stroke there was broken the age-long See also:direct political power of the hierarchy in the Holy Roman Empire; and the ultimate See also:heir of the bulk of these lands was Protestant Prussia. 4. 1814-1870. The foreign policy of the papacy so long as conducted by Consalvi, or in his spirit, was supremely successful. From 1814 to 183o Europe witnessed the restoration The Papacy of legitimate monarchy. The once exiled dynasties and the conscientiously re-established the legitimate Church,Restoratton. and both conservative powers made common cause against revolutionary tendencies. Throughout Europe the governing classes regarded this " union of throne and altar " as axiomatic. For the pope, as eldest legitimate sovereign and protagonist against the Revolution, Consalvi obtained from the See also:Congress of Vienna the restitution of the States of the Church in practically their full extent. By concluding concordats with all the important Catholic powers save Austria he made it possible to crush Jansenism, Febronianism and Gallicanism. By bulls of circumscription, issued after consultation with various Protestant states of Germany, he rearranged their Catholic dioceses and readjusted ecclesiastical incomes. By unfailing tact he gained the good will of Great See also:Britain, where before him no cardinal had set foot for two centuries, and secured that friendly understanding between the See also:British government and the Vatican which has since proved so valuable to Rome. After Consalvi's retirement, Leo XII. (1823-1829) continued his policy and secured further advantageous concordats. In the sixteen months' reign of Pius VIII. (1829-1830) came the achievement of Catholic emancipation in England and the Revolution of 1830; and the pope departed from the principle of legitimacy by recognizing Louis Philippe as king of the French. The pontificate of Gregory XVI. (1831-1846) was singularly infelicitous. The controversy with Prussia about the education of See also:children of whose parents but one was Roman Catholic led to the imprisonment of Droste-Vischering, archbishop of See also:Cologne, and later of Dunin, archbishop of See also:Gnesen-See also:Posen; but the accession of the royal romanticist See also:Frederick William IV. in 1840 brought a pacific reversal of the Prussian policy, sometimes judged more benevolent than wise. In France agitation was directed chiefly against the Jesuits, active in the movement to displace ancient See also:local catechisms and liturgies by the Roman texts, to enroll the laity in Roman confraternities, and to in-duce the bishops to visit Rome more frequently. To check this ultramontane propaganda the government secured from the papacy in 1845 the promise to close the Jesuit houses and novitiates in France. In Italy, however, lay the chief obstacles to the success of all papal undertakings. The revolution of 1830, though somewhat tardily felt in the States of the Church, compelled Gregory to rest his rule on foreign bayonets. In return he was obliged to lend an See also:ear to the proposals of France, and above all to those of Austria. This meant opposition to all schemes for the unification of Italy. In 1815 the Italian peninsula had been divided into seven small states. Besides the government of the pope there were three kingdoms: See also:Sardinia, See also:Lombardo-See also:Venetia and Naples; and three duchies: Parma, Modena, Tuscany. To these regions the Napoleonic regime had given a certain measure of unity; but Metternich, dominant after 1815, held Italy to be merely a See also:geographical term. To its unification Austria was the chief obstacle; she owned Lombardo-Venetia; she controlled the three duchies, whose rulers were Austrian princes; and she upheld the See also:autocracy of the king of Naples and that of the pope against all revolutionary movements. To the Italian patriot the papacy seemed in league with the oppressor. The pope sacrificed the national aspirations of his subjects to his inter-national relations as head of the Church; and he sacrificed their craving for See also:liberty to the alliance with autocracy on which rested the continued existence of the temporal power. The dual position of the pope, as supreme head of the Church on See also:earth and as a minor Italian prince, was destined to break down through its inherent See also:contradiction; it was the task of Pius IX. to postpone the catastrophe. The reign of Pius IX. falls into three distinct parts. Until driven from Rome by the republican agitation of 1848 he was a popular idol, open to liberal political views. From Pius IX., his return in 185o to 187o he was the reactionary I846—I878. ruler —of territories menaced by the movement for Italian unity, and sustained only by French bayonets; yet he was interested primarily in pointing out to an often incredulous world that most of the vaunted, intellectual and religious progress of the loth century was but pestilent error; properly to be condemned by himself as the infallible vicegerent of See also:God. The third division of his career, from the loss of the temporal power to his death, inaugurates a new period for the papacy. At the outset of his reign he faced a crisis. It was clear that he could not continue the repressive See also:tactics of his predecessor. The papacy Italy and Europe were astir with the Liberal agitation, and Italian which in 1848 culminated in the series of revolutions unity. by which the settlement of 1815 was destined to be profoundly modified. Liberal churchmen in Italy, while rejecting Mazzini's See also:dream of a republic, had evolved projects for attaining national unity while preserving the temporal power. The exiled See also:abbe Vincenzo See also:Gioberti championed an Italian confederacy under the See also:presidency of the pope; hand in hand with the unity of the nation should go the unity of the faith. In allusion to medieval partisans of the papacy this theory was dubbed Neo-Guelphism. Towards such a solution Pius IX. was at first not unfavourably inclined, but the revolution of 1848 cured him of his Liberal leanings: In November of that year he fled in disguise from his capital to See also:Gaeta, in the kingdom of Naples, and when French arms had made feasible his restoration to Rome in April 185o he returned in a See also:temper of stubborn resistance to all reform; henceforth he was no longer open to the influence of men of the type of See also:Rossi or Rosminf, but took the See also:inspiration of his policy from Cardinal See also:Antonelli and the Jesuits. The same pope who had signalized his accession by carrying out a certain number of Liberal reforms set his name in 1864 to the famous See also:Syllabus, which was in effect a declaration of war by the papacy against the leading principles of modern civilization (see SYLLABUS). As from 1849 to 1870 the See also:fate of the papacy was determined not so much by domestic conditions, which, save for certain slight ameliorations, were those of the preceding reigns, as by foreign politics, it is necessary to consider the relations of Rome with each of the powers in turn; and in so doing one must trace not merely the negotiations of See also:kings and popes, but must seek to understand also the aims' of See also:parliamentary parties, which from 1848 on increasingly determine ecclesiastical legislation. The chief ally of the papacy from 1849 to 1870 was France. The policy which made Louis Napoleon dictator forced him into mortal conflict with the republican parties; and Louis Napo. the price of the parliamentary support of the Catholic loon and the majority was high. Even before Napoleon's elec- papacy. tion as See also:president, See also:Falloux, the Catholic See also:leader, had promised to secure intervention in favour of the dispossessed pope. Napoleon, however, could not forget that as a See also:young man he himself had vainly fought to obtain from Gregory XVI. those liberties which Pius IX. still refused to grant; he therefore essayed diplomacy, not arms. Nevertheless, to forestall the See also:rescue of the pope by Austrian troops, he sent, in August 1849, an army See also:corps under See also:Oudinot to Civita Vecchia. By heading off reactionary Austria Napoleon hoped to conciliate the French Liberals; by helping the pope, to satisfy the Catholics; by concessions to be wrung both from Pius and from the Roman triumvirs, to achieve a bloodless victory. As neither party yielded, Oudinot listened to his Catholic advisers, attacked Rome, with which the French Republic was technically at peace—and was roundly repulsed by See also:Garibaldi. To relieve their inglorious See also:predicament the See also:ministry hurried the Liberal diplomatist, Ferdinand de See also:Lesseps, to Rome to prevent further conflict. At the moment when Lesseps had secured the See also:signing of a treaty with the Roman Republic permitting peaceful occupation of the city by the French army, he was peremptorily recalled and Oudinot was as unexpectedly ordered to take the city by See also:storm. This amazing reversal of policy was procured by the intrigues of Catholic diplomatists and German French Jesuits, conveyed to Paris by Prince de la Tour capture of d'See also:Auvergne. For the honour of the army and the Rome. Church republican France thereupon destroyed the Roman republic. Napoleon lost 1200 in dead and wounded, actually secured not a single reform on which he had insisted, and drew, upon himself the fateful See also:obligation to See also:mount perpetual guard over the Vatican. As the catspaw of clerical reaction he had also to acquiesce in that " Roman See also:campaign at home " that resulted in the Falloux Act of 1850, which in the name of liberty of education put the university in bondage Napoleon lfh to the archbishops, militated against lay teachers and the in secondary and See also:primary See also:schools, and set them Papacy. under clerical See also:control, made it ominously easy for members of religious congregations to become instructors of youth, and cut the See also:nerve of the communal school system. That education was delivered up to the Church was partly the result of the terror inspired in the middle classes by the socialistic upheavals of 1848. The bourgeoisie sought the support of the clergy, and irreligion became as unfashionable among them as it had been among the See also:nobility after 1793. Religion was thought to be part of a fashionable education, and the training of girls came almost exclusively into the hands of the religious orders and congregations. So long as the alliance of the autocratic empire and the clergy lasted (1852-1860), intellectual reaction reigned; the university professorships of history and philosophy were suppressed. This alliance of the empire with the clergy was shaken by the Italian War of 1859, which resulted in the loss by the pope of two-thirds of his territories. Napoleon was evidently returning to the traditions of his youth, and in the September See also:Convention of 1864 it looked as if he would abandon Rome to its manifest destiny. This solution was spoiled by the impatience of Garibaldi and the supineness of the Romans them-selves. In 1867 Napoleon made himself once more See also:guardian of the Holy See; but the wonders wrought by the new French chassepots at the battle of Mentana cost the friendship of Italy. Thereafter Napoleon was blindly staggering to his fall. He aimed at honour in upholding the pope, in See also:driving the Austrian See also:tyrant from Italy, in attacking Prussia. The Austrian support on which he relied confidently in 187o proved delusive, for he could obtain nothing from Austria unless he had Italy with him, and nothing from Italy without the evacuation of Rome. Even after the war with Prussia had actually broken out he refused Italian aid at the price of the See also:abandonment of the city, a step which he nevertheless reversed hurriedly twenty days too See also:late. With Napoleon fell the temporal power; but the French hierarchy still kept his gifts in the shape of the congregations, the See also:pro-Catholic colonial policy, and a certain control of education. Of these privileges the Church was to be deprived a See also:generation later. The Third Republic can never forget that it was to the support of the temporal sovereignty of the pope that Napoleon III. owed his empire and France her deepest humiliation. On the withdrawal of the French See also:garrison Rome was occupied by the troops of See also:Victor See also:Emmanuel. This monarch had always Italian pa. been a See also:thorn in the side of the papacy. Under him cupatton of Sardinia had adopted the Siccardi See also:Laws of 185o, Rome. which had taken away the right of See also:asylum and the jurisdiction of the Church over its own clergy. His reputation for See also:sacrilege, increased five years later by the abolition of many monasteries, became notorious when the formation of the kingdom of Italy (1861) took away all the dominions of the pope except the patrimony of Peter, thereby reducing the papal provinces from twenty to five, and their population from over 3,000,000 to about 685,000. This act was followed in 1867 by the confiscation of church property, and on the loth of September 1870 by the triumphant seizure of Rome. If France was the right arm and Italy the See also:scourge of the papacy under Pius IX., the Spanish-speaking countries were its The papacy obedient tools. Torn by civil wars, their harassed and the rulers sought papal recognition at a cost which Spanish more experienced governments would have refused. States. Thus See also:Isabella II. of Spain in the concordat of 1851 confirmed the exclusive privileges of the Roman religion and gave the control of all education to the Church; but after the Revolution of 1868 Spain departed for the first time from the principle of the unity of the faith by establishing liberty of See also:worship, which was, however, a dead See also:letter. On the Spanish model concordats were arranged with various Central and South American republics, perhaps the most ironclad being that concluded with See also:Ecuador in 1862 (abrogated 1878). Among the more See also:stable governments of Europe reaction in favour of conservatism and religion after 1848 was used by Concordat clerical parties to obtain concordats more systematic with and thoroughgoing than had been concluded even Austria, after 1814. Austria, for instance, although long lam' the political mainstay of the papacy, had never abandoned the broad lines of ecclesiastical policy laid down by Joseph II.; but the young Francis Joseph, seeking the aid of Rome in curbing heterogeneous nationalities, in 1855 negotiated a concordat whose paragraphs regarding the censorship, education and marriage were far-reaching. It was, moreover, the first document of the sort in which a first-class power recognized that the rights of the Church are based upon " divine institution and See also:canon law," not upon governmental concession. Violated by the Liberal constitution of 1867, which granted religious liberty, depotentiated by laws setting up lay jurisdiction over matrimonial cases and state control of education, it was abrogated . in 187o by Austria, who alleged that the proclamation of papal See also:infallibility had so altered the status of one of the contracting parties that the agreement was void. Passing over Portugal, the remaining European state which is Roman Catholic is Belgium. Torn from Austria by the Belgium. clerical revolution of 1790, after many vicissitudes it was united in 1815 with Holland and placed under the rule of the Protestant William I., king of the United Nether- lands. The constitutional See also:guarantee of religious liberty had from the outset been resisted by the powerful and resolute priest- See also:hood, supported by numerous sympathizers among the nobility. As the arbitrary king alienated the Liberal Catholics, who were still more or less under the spell of the. French Revolution, the Catholic provinces took advantage of the upheavals of 1830 to form the independent kingdom of Belgium. Its Fundamental Law of 1831, conceived in the spirit of the English Whigs, and later imitated in the European countries, granted liberty of worship and of education. Strangely enough, this liberty meant increase of power for the Clericals; for besides putting an end to stringent state interference in the education of future priests, it made possible a See also:free and far-reaching Catholic school system whose crown was the episcopally controlled university of See also:Louvain (1834). The Education Act of 1842 led to the formation of the Liberal party, whose See also:bond of union was resistance to clericalism, whose watchword was the " independence of the civil power." The Catholics and Liberals were alternately in control until 1894, when the tenfold enlargement of the electorate broke down the Liberal party completely. The chief theme of contention, developed through many a noteworthy phase, has been the question of schools. In the half-century from 183o to 188o the cloisters likewise prospered and multiplied fivefold. The result of this See also:evolution is that Belgium is to-day the most staunchly Catholic land north of the Alps. In Holland, as in Belgium, the education question has been uppermost. Here, even after 1831 the Roman Catholics constituted three-eighths of the population. Allied with Holland. the Liberals against the orthodox Protestants, who were threatening religious liberty, the Catholics assisted in 1857 to establish a system of non-sectarian state schools, where attendance is not obligatory nor instruction gratuitous. Changing front, in 1868, in league with the orthodox, they tried to make these denominational; but as the Liberals defeated their attempt, they founded schools of their own. In the non-Catholic countries of Europe during the reign of Pius IX., and in fact during the whole 19th century, the important gains of Rome were in strategic position rather Other non-than in See also:numbers. The spread of toleration, which catholic always favours minorities, broke down between 1845 countries. and 1873 the Lutheran exclusiveness of See also:Norway, See also:Denmark and Sweden; but as yet the Catholics form a disappearing fraction of the population. In European Russia, as a result of the partitions of Poland under See also:Catherine II. (1762-1796), about one-tenth of the people are Roman Catholics. The Ruthenians had united with Rome at See also:Brest in 1596, forming a See also:group of Uniates distinct from the Poles, who belonged to the Latin rite. In spite of the assurances of Catherine, Russia has repeatedly persecuted the Ruthenian Uniates, in order to incorporate them into the Holy Orthodox Church; and she has occasionally taken drastic measures against the Poles, particularly after the revolts of 183o and 1863. After more than a century of repression in 1905 the See also:Edict of Toleration brought some See also:relief. The remarkable See also:extension of the Catholic hierarchy by Pius IX. into Protestant lands, legally possible because of toleration, was in some cases made practicable because of See also:immigration. Though this factor was perhaps not prominent in the case of Holland (1853) or See also:Scotland (1878) it was Irish immigration which made it feasible in England (185o). For a time the Roman propaganda in England, which drew to itself High Churchmen like See also:Newman and See also:Manning, was viewed with See also:apprehension; but though the Roman Catholic Church has grown greatly in influence in the country, the number of its adherents, in proportion to the growth of population, has not very greatly increased. In the United States of America, however, the Catholic population has increased by leaps and bounds through immigration. The famines of the 'forties, with their subsequent political and economic difficulties, transferred to America millions of the Irish, whose See also:genius for organization in politics has not fallen short of their zeal for religion. The German-speaking immigrants have also had a creditable share in the work of church extension, but the Italians have manifested no marked ardour for their faith. The losses in transplantation have been huge, but it is impossible to estimate them accurately, for even the current figures for the Catholic population are based on detailed estimates rather than on an actual count. Summing up the history of the papacy from the Congress of Vienna to the fall of the temporal power, one finds statistical gains in Protestant countries offset perhaps by relative losses in Catholic lands, both largely due to the closely related forces of toleration and immigration. While the hold of the popes on the States of the Church was constantly weakening, their power over the domestic policies of foreign governments was increasing; and the transition from autocracy to parliamentary rule accelerated this process, at least in non-Catholic territories. The unparalleled spread of ultramontane ideas (see See also:ULTRAMONTANISM) brought about a centralization of authority at Rome such as would have appalled the 18th century. This centralization was, however, for the time not so much legal as doctrinal. In 1854 Pius IX. by his See also:sole authority established a See also:dogma (see IMMACULATE CONCEPTION); and the infallibility implied in this act was openly acknowledged in 187o by the Council of the Vatican (see VATICAN COUNCIL and INFALLIBILITY). Thus were the spiritual prerogatives of the papacy exalted in the very summer that the temporal power was brought low. (W. W. R.*) V.—Period from 187o to 1900. The few months that elapsed between the 18th of July 1870 and the 18th of January 1871 witnessed four events that have been fraught with more consequence to the papacy than any-thing else that had affected that institution for the past three centuries. They were as follows: (1) The proclamation of the Infallibility of the Pope on the 18th of July 1870; (2) the fall of the Napoleonic empire and the establishment of the third French republic on the 4th of September 1870; (3) the occupation of Rome by the Italian forces on the loth of September 1870, resulting in the See also:incorporation of the remaining states of the Church in the kingdom of Italy; and (4) the foundation of the German Empire by the proclamation, on the 18th of January 1871, of the king of Prussia as hereditary German emperor. These changes, which so greatly disturbed the current of all European relations, could not fail to react upon the papal policy in various ways. They brought its existing tendencies into greater relief, set before it new aims and diverted it into new channels. Essential modifications could not, of course, be at once effected or even indicated in a power whose life-See also:blood is tradition, and whose main strength has always lain in calmly abiding the issue of events and in temporizing. The eight years that Pius IX. was permitted to see after the loss of his temporalities entirely harmonize with this character. The See also:veil that hides the negotiations which, during the closing months of the Franco-German War, were carried on between See also:Bismarck and the pope, through the agency of Cardinal Bonnhose, has not yet been lifted, and perhaps never will be. According to Bismarck Prince Bismarck's own account of the matter, as and the given in his Gedanken and Erinnerungen, these Temporal negotiations were initiated by the See also:chancellor, who, Power. between the 5th and 9th of November 1870, entertained pour parlers with Archbishop See also:Ledochowski-on the question of the territorial interests of the pope. The chancellor, acting, as he himself says, in the spirit of the adage, " one hand washes the other," proposed to that See also:prelate that the pope should give earnest of the relations subsisting between him and Germany by influencing the French clergy in the direction of the conclusion of peace. The cool reception his endeavours met with, both at the hands of the French ecclesiastics as well as in Rome, satisfied Bismarck that the papal hierarchy lacked either the power or the good will to afford Germany assistance of sufficient value to make it See also:worth while giving umbrage to both the German Protestants and the Italian national party, and risking a reaction of the latter upon the future relations between the two countries, which would be the inevitable result were Germany openly to espouse the papal cause in Rome." These utterances are eminently characteristic. They show how far Bismarck was (even at the close of 1870) from comprehending the traditional policy of the papacy towards Germany and German interests, and how little he conceived it possible to employ the relations between the future empire and the Vatican as a point of departure for a successful and consistent ecclesiastical policy. Rome, in a certain sense, showed itself possessed of far greater foresight. The German politicians and the Prussian diplomatists accredited to Rome had worked too openly at undermining the papal hierarchy, and had veiled their sympathies for See also:Piedmont far too lightly to lead the Vatican to expect, after the loth of September 1870, a genuine and See also:firm intervention on the part of Prussia on behalf of the temporal power of the Holy See. To satisfy the demands of Bismarck in November 1870 would have cost the Vatican more than it would ever have gained. It could neither afford to trifle with the sympathies of the French Catholics nor to interrupt the progress of those elements, which would naturally be a thorn in the side of the young German Empire, thus undo Bismarck's work, and restore the Vatican policy to its pristine strength and vigour. It was soon to be perceived how carefully the Curia had made its calculations. The address of the Catholic deputies to the emperor William in See also:Versailles on the 18th of February 1871, See also:pleading for the restoration of the States of the Church and the temporal sovereignty of the pope, and for the reconstitution of the Catholic group formed in the Prussian Landtag in 186o as the Centrum or Centre Party in the new Reichstag (April 1871), must not be regarded as the origin but rather the immediate occasion of the Kulturkampf. The congratulations which the pope sent to the emperor William on receiving the announcement of the establishment of the German Empire (March 6, 1871) were a last See also:exchange of civilities, and the abolition of the Catholic See also:department in the Prussian ministry of public worship (July 8, 1871) quickly followed, together with the See also:appointment of See also:Falk as Kultusminister (See also:Jan. 22, 1872), and the School Inspection Law of the 9th of February 1872. On the 3oth of January Bismarck took the opportunity of inveighing against the formation of the sectarian Centrum as being " one of the most monstrous phenomena in the world of politics," and he left no See also:room for doubt kampt:'nrin the minds of his hearers that he regarded the leadership of See also:Windthorst as constituting, in his eyes, a peril to the national unity. In his See also:Memoirs (ii. 126) he declares that the Kulturkampf was mainly initiated by him as a Polish question. This declaration, in view of the development of affairs, must appear as See also:strange as the chancellor's See also:confession (Memoirs, ii. 129 seq.) that he endeavoured to persuade the emperor of the advantage of having a. nuncio accredited to See also:Berlin (in lieu of the Catholic department of public worship). The refusal of the emperor William to entertain this project shows that in such matters his judgment was more correct than that of his counsellor, and the incident proves that the latter had anything but a clear insight into the See also:historical position. He was drifting about with no higher aim than a " hand-to-mouth " policy, whilst the Holy See could feel the superiority with which the consciousness of centuries of tradition had endowed it, and took full advantage of the mistakes of its opponent. The chancellor never realized the gravity of the onslaught which, with his Kulturkampf, he was making upon the See also:conscience and liberty of his Catholic See also:fellow citizens. He dealt with the great question at issue from the standpoint of the diplomatist, rather than from that of the statesman well versed in ecclesiastical history and possessing an insight into what it implies; and by his violent, inconsiderate action he unwittingly drove into the ranks of Ultramontanism the moderate elements of the Catholic population. This conflict, moreover, brought Ultra See also:montanism the enormous advantage that, even after the abolition of the May Laws, it had still left to it a well-disciplined press, an admirable organization, and a network of interests and interested parties; and all these combined to make the Centrum the strongest and the most influential political party in Germany for the See also:remainder of the 19th century. Owing to these circumstances, the rise and further development of the Kulturkampf were viewed in Jesuit and Vatican circles with feelings of the utmost complacency. The purely ecclesiastical policy of Pius IX. was guided by the earnest desire to see the doctrine of Papal Infallibility brought to universal recognition. The See also:definition of the Immaculate Conception (1854) and the proclamation of the Syllabus (1864) were See also:finger-posts pointing the way to the Council of 187o. The pope had been persuaded that the proclamation of the new dogma would be effected without difficulty and without discussion; and when the pronouncement actually met with opposition, he was both surprised and embittered. For a moment the idea was entertained of giving way to the opposition and deferring a decision in the matter, or, in the manner of the fathers in the Council of Trent, adjourning it to the See also:Greek kalends. But the party that needed for its purposes an infallible pope readily persuaded Pius IX. that if the council broke up without arriving at a decision favourable to the papacy, this would be tantamount to a serious defeat of the Holy See and an open victory for the Gallican system. The consequence was the bull Pastor aeternus, which Pius IX. issued on the 15th of July. This did not by any means represent all the demands of the Jesuits, and it was couched in terms which appeared not unacceptable to the majority of the Catholics. The fact that the bishops were prepared to forego their opposition was not unknown in Rome. It was anticipated by the authorities. But in Germany, as also in France, the waves of anti-Infallibility were See also:rolling so high, that the further development of events was viewed with no small concern. Under normal conditions, the situation could not fail to terminate favourably for the Vatican. That the Kulturkampf had followed so rapidly upon the war was the greatest piece of good fortune that could have befallen the Holy See. The war demanded both in Germany and France the sacrifice of all available energy and public spirit; while the Kulturkampf, by bringing into relief the question of the external existence of the Church, thrust all internal dogmatic interests and problems completely into the background. The egregious blunder in the May Laws was the punitive clauses directed against the inferior clergy. Instead of enlisting them as friends, the Prussian government contrived by See also:wild and wanton persecution to make them its enemies. The open protection it accorded to the Old Catholic movement contributed in no small measure to estrange those influential elements which, whilst favouring the suppression of Ultramontane tendencies, desired no schism in the Church, and viewed with horror the idea of a National Church in Bismarck's sense (see OLD CATHOLICS). Thus we find that the bitter years of the Kulturkampf extricated the Vatican from one of the most difficult situations in which it had ever been placed. Pius IX. could now See also:fold his hands, so far as the future was concerned. It is well known that he fed on inspirations, and expected each day the See also:advent of some supernatural occurrence which should bring about the See also:triumph of the Church. In this See also:frame of mind, on the 24th of June 1872, he addressed the German Leseverein, and referred to the stone that would soon fall from on high and crush the feet of the See also:Colossus. Yet the stone has not fallen from the See also:summit of the holy See also: Although the Liberal See also:record of the pope was a thing of the past, and his policy had, since Gaeta, become firmly identified with the reactionary policy of Antonelli, yet the early years of his pontificate were in such lively recollection as to allow of Pius IX.'s appearing to some extent in the light of a national hero. And rightly; for he had always had a warm See also:heart for Italy; and had it not been for the anti-ecclesiastical policy of the house of Piedmont, he would not, in the 'sixties, have been wholly averse from reconciliation. The hitherto unpublished See also:correspondence of the pope with Victor Emmanuel contains remarkable proofs in support of this contention, and a further corroboration can also be preceived in the conciliatory attitude of Pius IX. on the death of the king. Pius died on the 7th of February 1878, only a few See also:weeks later than his opponent. He had long passed the traditional years of Peter's pontificate, had reigned longer than any previous wearer of the tiara, and had seen some brilliant days—days of illusory glory. On his death he left the Church shaken to its very foundations, and in feud with almost every government. In Italy the Holy See was surrounded by a hostile force, whose " prisoner " the See also:lord of the Vatican declared himself to be. In Spain and Portugal, and also in Belgium, a Liberalism inimical to the Church was in power. Prussia, together with other German states, was in arms against pope and episcopate. In France the Conservative Monarchical party had just shown its inability to preserve the Crown, whilst the Republic had anchored itself firmly by denouncing the clergy as its enemy. There was hardly a sovereign or a government in Christendom against which Pius IX. had not either protested or against which he had not openly declared war. Such was the heritage that devolved upon Leo XIII. on his election on the loth of February 1878. Leo XIII. brought to his new dignity many qualities that caused his election to be sympathetically received. In contrast to his predecessor, he was a man of slow and See also:calm deliberation, and it was natural to suppose that he L1898eo X-1903III., . was little, if at all, accessible to impulses of the moment or to the persuasions of his entourage. He was endowed with a certain scholastic erudition, and enjoyed the reputation of being a good Latinist. As nuncio in See also:Brussels he had become acquainted with the trans-Alpine world, and had been initiated into the working of the machinery of modern politics and modern parliamentary government. The fact that he had for so long been absent from Rome afforded ground for the belief that he was not inclined to identify himself with any of the parties at the Vatican court. These were the considerations that had caused 1 By the Law of Guarantees the pope was recognized as an independent sovereign, with jurisdiction over his own palaces and their extensive precincts and the right to receive diplomatic representatives accredited to him. He also received the right to appoint bishops, who—except in Rome and the suburbicarian districts—were to be Italian subjects; and, with a significant exception, the See also:exequatur, placet See also:regium, and every form of government permission for the publication and execution of acts of ecclesiastical authority were abolished. (See also ITALY: History.) the Moderates in the Sacred College to See also:fix their eyes upon him. The appointment of Franchi as secretary of state was a bid for peace that was viewed by the Irreconcilables with See also:ill-disguised vexation. The following years of Leo XIII.'s pontificate only tended to increase their dissatisfaction. The first care of the new pope was to pave the way for the restoration of peace with Russia and the German Empire, and it was owing to his patience, persistence and energy that these efforts for peace were crowned with success. In the case of Germany he made many concessions which appeared to the Zelanti to be excessive, and made even still greater ones to France and Russia, to the great distress of the Poles. But at last Leo XIII. could Leo x1.as Diplomatist. boast not only of having re-established diplomatic relations with most of the powers, but also of having entered into a convention with the great powers of the North, which accorded him, in conjunction with the three emperors, a leading position as champion of the conservative interests of humanity. How proud Leo XIII. was of his importance in this position is shown by the beautiful encyclical, De civitatum constitutione christiana (" Immortale Dei " of Nov. 1, 1885), in which he adopted the strongest attitude against the principle of the sovereignty of the people (ex its autem Pontificum prcescriptis illud omnino intelligi necesse est, ortum publice potestatis a Deo ipso, non a multiludine repeti posse), refuting the notion that the principle of public power emanates from the will of the people alone (principaturn non esse nisi populi voluntatem), and absolutely rejecting the sovereignty of the people as such. But this attitude was adopted by Leo XIII. not as an end but as a means. The real aims of his rule were disclosed in the second phase of his pontificate. At its very commencement, the pope in his first encyclical (Easter 1878) proclaimed the necessity of a temporal hierarchy. This was at the time regarded merely as a formality imposed by circumstances, and one not to be seriously entertained; but it became more and more evident that the recovery of the temporalities was the real mainspring of Leo's whole policy. In the negotiations with Germany, it was clearly seen that it was from that side that the pope expected intervention in favour of restitution; and, according to all appearances, Bismarck did for a while keep alive these representations, though with more tact than candour. After peace had been concluded, Leo, by the agency of Galimberti, reminded the chancellor of the settlement of the Roman question. Bismarck replied that he was " unaware of the existence of any such question." The two visits paid by Emperor William II. to the Vatican could not fail to remove any doubts in the mind of the pope as to the fact that Germany did not dream of giving him back Rome. The Austro-German-Italian triple alliance was a dire blow to his expectations, and See also:Crispi's policy with its irritating and galling See also:pin-pricks caused the cup to overflow. Thus slowly, but yet deliberately, between 1887 and 1893, a transformation took place in Leo's spirit and policy, and with LeoXIII.andit was brought about one of the most momentous the French changes in the attitude of the Church towards the Republic. problems of the times and their impelling forces. A rapprochement with France inevitably entailed not only an alliance with modern See also:democracy, but also a recognition of its principles and aims. In Rome there was no room for both pope and king. The See also:note of the pope to See also:Rampolla of the 8th of October 1895, in consequence of the celebrations on the 20th of September, declared, in terms more decided than any that had until then been uttered, that the papacy required a territorial sovereignty in order to ensure its full independence, and that its interests were therefore incompatible with the existence of the kingdom of Italy as then constituted. The inevitable consequences ensued. Italy regarded the pope more than ever as a foe within its walls; and the policy of the pope, as regards Italy, aimed at replacing the kingdom by one or more republics, in which the temporal power should, in some form or other, find a place. But the continuance of the Republic in'Paris was a condition precedent to the establishment of a republic in Rome, and the first had no See also:chance of existence if the democracy in France did not remainin power. The result was the policy of the Ralliement. Instructions were given to the French Catholics to break with monarchical principles, and both externally and internally to cleave to the Republic as representing the best form of constitutional government. In carrying out the regime of Rampolla, which was, in every respect, a See also:bad See also:imitation of that of Antonelli, the Vatican left no stone unturned in its attempt to coerce the conscience of the French royalists; it did not even stop at dishonour, as was evidenced by the case of the unhappy Mgr d'Hulst, who, in order to evade the censorship of his pamphlet on Old Testament See also:criticism, had to abandon both his king and his principles, only to die in exile of a broken heart. The case was characteristic of the whole Catholic monarchical party, which, owing to the pope's interference in French politics, became disintegrated and dissolved, a fate that was all the more painful seeing that the Ralliement failed to influence the course of events. The " atheistic " Republic did not for one moment think of putting on sackcloth, or even of giving the Church a single See also:proof of esteem and sympathy. In one respect it was impossible for the papacy to continue on the path it had taken. In his first encyclical, Leo XIII.. had sounded the clarion for battle against the Social The pope Democracy; his encyclical Novarum rerum en- and social deavoured to show the means to be employed, Democracy. mainly in view of the condition of things in Belgium, for solving the social question on Christian lines. But the Christian Democracy, which, starting in Belgium and France, had now extended its activity to Italy, Austria and Germany, and was striving to arrive at this solution, degenerated everywhere into a political party. The leaders of this party came into close contact with the Social Democrats, and their relations became so cordial that Social Democracy everywhere declared the " Democratie Chretienne " to be its forerunner and See also:pioneer. The electioneering alliances, which were everywhere in See also:vogue, but particularly in Germany, between the Catholics and popular party and the Social Democrats, throw a lurid light upon the character of a movement that certainly went far beyond the intentions of the pope, but which it was now difficult to undo or to hold in check. For it is the essence of the matter that there were further considerations going far beyond the Roman question and forcing the Curia to adhere to the sovereignty of the people. The external rehabilitation of the Church had become, in many points, a fait accompli, but, internally, events had not kept pace with it. Catholic romanticism had withered See also:Alienation away in France, as it had in Germany.. " Liberal of the Catholicism," which was its offspring, had died with Educated See also:Montalembert, after being placed under a ban by !I? Rome. The national religious movement, associated in Italy with the great names of Rosmini and Gioberti, had similarly been disavowed and crushed. The development of the last decade of the 19th century had clearly shown that the educated bourgeoisie, the tiers Nat, in whose hands the supreme power had since 1848 become vested throughout Europe, was either entirely lost to the Church or, at all events, indifferent to what were called Ultramontane tendencies. The educated bourgeoisie, which controls the See also:fields of politics, science, finance, administration, art and literature, does not trouble itself about that great spiritual universal monarchy which Rome, as heir of the Caesars, claimed for the Vatican, and to which the Curia of to-day still clings. This bourgeoisie and the modern state that it upholds stand and fall with the See also:motion of a constitutional state, whose magna carta is municipal and spiritual liberty, institutions with which the ideas of the Curia are in direct conflict. The more the See also:hope of being able to regain these middle classes of society disappeared, the more decidedly did the Curia perceive that it must seek the support and the regeneration of its power in the steadily growing democracy, and endeavour through the See also:medium of universal See also:suffrage to secure the influence which this new alliance was able to offer. The pontificate of Leo XIII. in its first phase aimed at pre-serving a certain balance of power. Whilst not openly repelling the tendencies of the Jesuits, Leo yet showed himself well disposed towards, and even amenable to, views of a diametri-The papacy catty opposite See also:kind; and as soon as the Vatican and the threw itself into the arms of France, and bade fare-Modern well to the idea of a national Italy, the policy cf De°1oCracY' See also:equilibrium had to be abandoned. The second phase in Leo's policy could only be accomplished with the aid of the Jesuits, or rather, it required the submission of the ecclesiastical hierarchy to the mandates of the Society of Jesus. The further consequence was that all aspirations were subjected to the thraldom of the Church. The pontificate of Leo XIII. is distinguished by the great number of persecutions, prosecutions and injuries inflicted upon Catholic savants, from the prosecution of Antonio Rosmini down to the proscription directed against the heads of the American Church. Episodes, such as the protection so long extended to the Leo Taxil affair, and to the revelations of See also:Diana See also:Vaughan (the object of which last was to bring Italian See also:freemasonry and its ostensible work, the unity of Italy, into discredit), together with the attitude of the Ultra-montane press in the See also:Dreyfus affair, and later towards England, the invigoration of political agitation by the See also:Lourdes celebration and by anti-Semitism, were all manifestations that could not raise the " system " in the estimation of the cultured and civilized world. Perhaps even more dangerous was the employment of the whole ecclesiastical organization, and of Catholicism generally, for political purposes. No one will be so foolish or so unjust as to hold Leo XIII. responsible for the excesses committed by the subordinate departments of his government, in disclosing prosecuting and sometimes even fraudulently misrepresenting his aims and ends. But all these details, upon which it is not necessary to dwell, are overshadowed beyond all doubt by the one great fact that the ecclesiastical regime had not only taken under its wing the solution of social questions, but also claimed that political action was within the proper See also:scope of the Church, and, moreover, arrogated to itself the right of interfering by means of " Directives " with the political life of nations. This was nothing new, for as early as 1215 the English barons protested against it. But the weakening of the papacy had allowed this claim to See also:lapse for centuries. To have revived it, and to have carried it out as far as is possible, was the work of Leo XIII. It would be both presumptuous and premature to pass a final See also:verdict upon the value and success of a policy to which, whatever else be said, must be accorded a certain meed of praise for its daring. Even in 1892 Speller, in his See also:essay upon See also:Lamennais, pointed out how the latest evolution of Catholicism was taking the course indicated by Lamennais in his Livre du people (1837), and how the See also:hermit of " La Chenaie," who departed this life in bitter strife with Rome, declared himself to be the actual precursor of modern Christian See also:Socialism. He hinted that the work of Leo XIII. was, in his eyes, merely a new attempt to build up afresh the See also:theocracy of the middle ages upoh the ruins of the old monarchies, utilizing to this end the inexperience of the young and easily beguiled democracies of the dawning loth century. To comprehend these views aright, we must first remember that what in the first half of the 19th century, and also in the days of Lamennais, was understood by Democracy was not coincident with the meaning of this expression as it was afterwards used, and as the Christian Socialists understood it. Down to 1848, and even still later, " Democracy " was used to See also:cover the whole mass of the people, pre-eminently represented by the broad strata of the bourgeoisie; in 1900 the Democratic party itself meant by this term the rule of the labouring class organized as a nation, which, by its numerical superiority, thrust aside all other classes, including the bourgeoisie, and excluded them from participation in its rule. In like manner it would be erroneous to confuse the sense of the expression as it obtains on the continent of Europe with what is under-stood under this term in England and America. In this latter case the term " Democracy," as applied to the historical development of Great Britain and the United States, denotes a constitutional state in which every See also:citizen has rightsproportionate to his energy and intelligence. The socialistic idea, with which the " Democratie Chretienne " had identified itself both in France and Belgium, regards numbers as the centre of gravity of the whole state organism. As a matter of fact it recognizes as actual citizens only the labourer, or, in other words, the See also:proletariat. On See also:surveying the situation, certain weak points in the policy of the Vatican under Leo XIII. were manifest even to a con-temporary observer. They might be summed up as follows: (r) An unmistakable decline of religious fervour in church life. (2) The intensifying and nurturing of all the passions and questionable practices which are so easily encouraged by See also:practical politics, and are incompatible in almost all points with the priestly office. (3) An ever-increasing displacement of all the refined, educated and nobler elements of society by such as are See also:rude and uncultured, by what, in fact, may be styled the ecclesiastical " Trottori." (4) The naturally resulting See also:paralysis of intelligence and scientific See also:research, which the Church either proscribed or only sullenly tolerated. (5) The increasing decay and waxing corruption of the See also:Romance nations, and the fostering of that diseased state of things which displayed itself in France in so many instances, such as the Dreyfus case, the anti-Semitic movement, and the campaign for and against the Assumptionists and their newspaper, the Croix. (6) The increasing estrangement of German and Anglo-Saxon feeling. As against these, noteworthy reasons might be urged in favour of the new development. It might well be maintained that the faults just enumerated were only cankers inseparable from every new and great movement, and that these excrescences would disappear in course of time, and the whole movement enter upon a more tranquil path. Moreover, in the See also:industrial districts of Germany, for example, the Christian industrial movement, supported by Protestants and Catholics alike, had achieved considerable results, and proved a serviceable means of combating the seductions of Socialism. Finally, the Church had reminded the wealthy classes of their duties to the sick and toilers, and by making the social question its own it had gone a long way towards permeating all social and political conditions with the spirit of Christianity. (F. X. K.) VI.—Period from 1900 to 1910. On the 3rd of March 1903 Leo XIII. celebrated his Jubilee with more than ordinary splendour, the occasion bringing him See also:rich tributes of respect from all parts of the world, Catholic and non-Catholic; on the loth of July following he died. The succession was expected to fall to Leo's secretary of state, Cardinal Rampolla; but he was credited with having inspired the French sympathies of the late pope; Austria exercised its right of See also:veto (see CONCLAVE, ad See also:fan.), and on the 8th of August, Giuseppe Sarto, who as cardinal See also:patriarch of Venice had shown a friendly disposition towards the Italian government, was elected pope. He took as his secretary of state Cardinal Raphael plus X. Merry del Val, a Spaniard of English See also:birth and educa- tion, well versed in diplomacy, but of well-known ultramontane tendencies. The new pope was known to be no politician, but a See also:simple and saintly priest, and in some quarters there were hopes that the attitude of the papacy towards the Italian kingdom might now be changed. But the name he assumed, Pius X., was significant; and, even had he had the will, it was soon clear that he had not the power to make any material departure from the policy of the first " prisoner of the Vatican." What was even more important, the new regime at the Vatican soon made itself felt in the relations of the Holy See with the world of modern thought and with the modern conception of the state. The new pope's See also:motto, it is said, was " to establish all things in See also:Christ " (instaurare omnia in Christo) ; and since, ex hypoihesi, he himself was Christ's See also:vicar on earth, the working out of this principle meant in effect the extension and consolidation of the papal authority and, as far as possible, an end to the compromises by means of which the •papacy had sought to make friends of the See also:Mammon of unrighteousness. It was this spirit which informed such decrees as that on " mixed marriages " (Ne temere) of 1907, which widened still further the social gulf between Catholics and Protestants (see MARRIAGE: Canon Law), or the refusal to allow the French bishops to accept the Associations Law passed by the French government after the denunciation of the concordat and the separation of Church and State (see FRANCE: History): better that the Church in France should sink into more than apostolic poverty than that a tittle of the rights of the Holy See should be surrendered. Above all it was this spirit that breathed through every line of the famous encyclical, Pascendi gregis, directed against the " Modernists " (see ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH: History), which denounced with bitter scorn and See also:irony those so-called Catholics who dared to attempt to reconcile the doctrine of the Church with the results of modern science, and who, presumptuously disregarding the authority of the Holy See, maintained " the absurd doctrine that would make of the laity the factor of progress in the Church." That under Pius X. the papacy had abandoned none of its pretensions to dominate consciences, not of Catholics only, was again proved in 1910 when, at the very moment when the pope was praising the English people for the spirit of tolerance which led the British government to introduce a See also:bill to alter the form of the Declaration made by the sovereign on his accession into a form inoffensive to Roman Catholics, he was remonstrating with the government of Spain for abrogating the law forbidding the Spanish dissident churches to display publicly the symbols of the Christian faith or to conduct their services otherwise than semi-privately. In pursuance of the task of strengthening the Holy See, the Vatican policy under Pius X. was not merely one of defiance Church towards supposed hostile forces within and without Reforms. the Church; it was also strenuous in pushing on the work of internal organization and reform. In 1904 a commission of cardinals was appointed to undertake the stupendous task of codifying the canon law (see CANON LAW), and in 1go8 an extensive reorganization of the Curia was Reforms of pi. x carried out, in order to conform its machinery more .
nearly to present-day needs (see CURIA See also:ROMANA). In taking England, the United States and other non-Catholic states from under the care of the Congregation of the Propaganda, the pope raised the status of the Roman Catholic Church in those countries. All these changes tended to consolidating the centralized authority of the papacy. Other reforms were of a different character. One of the earliest acts of the new pontificate was to forbid the use in the services of the Church of any music later than See also:Palestrina, a drastic order justified by the extreme degradation into which church music had fallen in Italy, but in general honoured rather in the spirit than in the letter. More important was the appointment in 1907 of a commission, under the presidency of See also: More weighty was the Du Pape of Joseph de See also:Maistre (1819), closely reasoned and fortified with a wealth of learning, which had an enormous influence upon all those who thought that they saw in the union of " altar and throne " the See also:palladium of society. The Holy Empire was dead, in spite of the pope's protest at Vienna against the failure to restore " the centre of political unity "; Joseph de Maistre's idea was to set up the Holy See in its place. To many minds the papacy thus came to represent a unifying principle, as opposed to the disruptive tendencies of Liberalism and Nationalism, and the papal monarchy came to be surrounded with a new halo, as in some sort realizing that ideal of a " federation of the world " after which the age was dimly feeling. So far as politics are concerned this sentiment was practically confined to certain classes, which saw their traditional advantages threatened by the revolutionary tendencies of the The papacy times; and the alliance between the throne and the and modern altar, by confusing the interests of the papacy with Thought. those of political parties, tended—as Leo XIII. had the wit to realize—to involve the fate of the one with that of the other, as in France. Far stronger was the See also:appeal made by the authoritative attitude of the papacy to all those who were disturbed by the scientific spirit of the age: the ceaseless questioning of all the foundations on which faith and. morality had been supposed to rest. Biblical criticism, by throwing doubt on the infallibility of the Scriptures, was undermining the traditional foundation of orthodox Protestantism, and most of the Protestant Churches, divided between antagonistic" tendencies, were ceasing to speak with a certain voice. To logical but timid minds, like that of J. H. Newman, which could not be content with a compromise with truth, but feared to face ultimate realities, the rigidly authoritative attitude of Rome made an irresistible appeal. The process, maybe, from the point of view of those outside, was to make a mental See also:wilderness and See also:call it peace; but from the papal point of view it had a double advantage: it attracted those in See also:search of religious certainty, it facilitated the See also:maintenance of its hold over the Catholic democracy. The methods by which it has sought to maintain this hold are criticized in the article ULTRAMONTANISM. There can also be little doubt—though the Curia itself would not admit it—that the spiritual power of the papacy has been greatly increased by the loss of the temporal power. The Loss of The pope is no longer a petty Italian prince who, in the Temporal order to preserve his dominions, was necessarily Power. involved in the tangle of European diplomacy; he is the monarch of a vast, admirably organized, spiritual world-empire, and when —as must needs happen—the overlapping of the spiritual and temporal See also:spheres brings him into conflict with a secular power, his diplomacy is backed, wherever Catholic sentiment is strong, by a force which the secular power has much difficulty in resisting; for in spiritual matters (and the term covers a wide field) the Catholic, however loyal to his country he may. be, must obey God, whose vicegerent is the pope, rather than man. Even Bismarck, in the end, had to " go to See also:Canossa." It is, indeed, possible to exaggerate this power. The fact that the Vatican presents a great force hostile to and obstructive of certain characteristic tendencies of modern life and thought has necessarily raised up a powerful opposition even in countries traditionally Catholic. France no longer deserves the title of eldest daughter of the Church; the Catholicism of Italy is largely superficial; even Spain has shown signs of restiveness. On the 722 other hand, the great opportunity now open to the papacy on its spiritual side, is proved by the growing respect in which it has been held since 187o in the English-speaking countries, where Roman Catholics are in a minority and their Church is in no sense established. Without doubt, See also:opinion has been influenced in these countries by the fact that Rome has not been sufficiently strong to exercise any disturbing influence on the general course of national affairs, while in both its conspicuous members set a high example of private and civic conduct. (W. A. P.) List of the Pontiffs of the Roman Church.' Date of Election Date of Death. or See also:Consecration. C. 41 B. PETRUS 29 vi, C. 65-67 c. 67 S. See also:Linus t 23 ix, C. 79 C. 79 S. See also:Cletus (See also:Anencletus) t 26 iv, c. 91 c. 91 S. Clemens I f 23 xi, C. 100 c.See also:ioo S. See also:Evaristus f 26 x, c. 109 c.1o9 S. Alexander t 3 v, C. 119 c.I19 S. Sixtus (See also:Xystus) t 6 iv, c. 126 ? 128 S. See also:Telesphorus t 5 137 c.138 S. See also:Hyginus II 1,.. 142 c.142 S. Pius II v, C. 156 c.157 S. See also:Anicetus t 17 iv, 167 168 S. See also:Soter 22 iv, C. 176 177 S. Eleutherus 26 v, 189 c.190 S. Victor I. 20 iv, c. 2o2 c.202 S. See also:Zephyrinus 26 viii, 217 218 S. Calixtus I. 14 x, 222 222 S. Urbanus I. t 25 v, 23o 23o S. See also:Pontianus res. 28 ix, 235 235 (21 xi, ord.) S. Anterus t 3 i, 236 236 S. Fabianus 20 i, 250 251 (iii. el.) S. See also:Cornelius 14 ix, 253 253 el. S. See also:Lucius t 5 iii, 254 254 (12 v ?, el.) S. Stephanus I. t 257 2 viii, 257 viii S. Sixtus (Xystus) II. , t 6 viii, 258 259 22 vii, el, S. See also:Dionysius t 268 26 xii, 269 5 i, el. S. Felix t 274 30 xii, 275 C. 5 i S. See also:Eutychianus t 8 xii, 283 283 17 xii S. Gains t 22 iv, 296 296 3o vi S. See also:Marcellinus (? 25 x), 304 307 el. S. Marcellus t 15 i, 309 309 iv, el. S. See also:Eusebius t 17 viii, 309 310 2 vii S. See also:Melchiades ( M i l t i a d e s ) t I I i, 314 314 31 i S. See also:Sylvester t 31 xii, 335 336 f8 i S. See also:Marcus t 7 x, 336 337 6 ii, el. S. Julius t 12 iv, 352 352 22 v S. Liberius t 24 ix, 366 366 ix S. See also:Damasus t 10 xii, 384 384 xii S. See also:Siricius t 26 xi, 398 398 xi–xii S. See also:Anastasius I. t veil. See also:anno 4oi–2 402 S. Innocentius I. t 12 iii, 417 417 18 iii, cs. S. See also:Zosimus t 26 xii, 418 418 28 xii S. See also:Bonifacius I. t 4 ix, 422 422 C. io ix S. Coelestinus I. t C. 26 vii, 432 432 31 vii S. Sixtus III. t i8 viii, 440 44o viii, el. S. Leo I. t Io xi, 461 461 12 xi, cs. S. Hilarus T 21 ii, 468 468 25 ii, cs. S. See also:Simplicius t 2 iii, 483 483 S. Felix III. t C. 25 ii, 492 492 I iii, CS. S. See also:Gelasius t 19 xi, 496 496 C. 24 xi. cs. S. Anastasius II. t et sep. 19 xi, 498 498 22 xi S. See also:Symmachus t et sepult. 19 vii, 514 514 20 vii, cs. S. See also:Hormisdas t sepult. 7 viii, 523 523 13 viii S. Joannes I. t 18 v, 526 526 12 vii, cs. S. Felix IV. t sepel. i2 x (?) 530 53o 17 ix, el. Bonifacius II. t sepul. 17 x, 532 532 31 xii, cs. Joannes II. t sepel. 27 v, 535 535 3 vi, cs. S. See also:Agapetus I. t 22 iv, 536 536 8 vi, es. S. See also:Silverius, exul t sepel. 20 vi, C. 538 537 29 in, cs. Vigilus t 7 vi, 555 555 p• 7 vi, cs. See also:Pelagius I. t 3 iii, 56o 560 14 vii, es. Joannes III. t sepel. 13 vii, 573 574 3 vi, cs. See also:Benedictus I. t 31 vii, 578 578 27 xi, cs. Pelagius II. t sepel. 6 ii, 590 590 3 ix, cs. S. Gregorius I. t sepel. 12 iii, 604 6o4 13 ix, cs. See also:Sabinianus t 22 ii, 6o6 607 19 ii, cs. Bonifacius III. t sepel. 12 xi, 607 608 15 ix, cs. S. Bonifacius IV. t sepel. 25 v, 615 615 19 x, cs. S. Deusdedit t sepel. 8 xi, 618 619 23 xii, cs. Bonifacius V. t sepel. 25 x, 625 625 3 xi, es. See also:Honorius t sepel. 12 x, 638 Date of Election Date of Death. or Consecration. 64o 28 v, cs. See also:Severinus t sepel. 2 viii, 64o 640 25 xii, cs. Joannes IV. t sepel. 12 x, 642 642 24 xi, cs. heodorus I. t sepal. 14 v, 649 649 vi-vii, cs. S. Martinus t exul i6 ix, 655 654 10 viii, cs. S. Eugenius I. f sepel. 3 vi, 657 657 30 vii, cs. S. See also:Vitalianus t sepal. 27 i, 672 672 II iv, cs. Adeodatus t sepal. 16 vi, 676 676 2 xi, cs. Donus t sep. 11 iv, 678 678 vi–vii, es. S. See also:Agatho sep. 10 i, 681 682 17 viii, cs. S. Leo II. t sep. 3 vii, 683 684 26 vi, cs. S. Benedictus II. t sep. 8 v, 685 685 23 vii, cs. Joannes V. t 2 viii, 686 686 21 x, es. See also:Conon f sepel. 22 ix, 687 687 x-xii, el. S. See also:Sergius I. t sepel. 8 ix, 701 701 30 x, cs. Joannes VI. f sepel. 10–Ii i, 705 705 I iii, cs. Joannes VII. t sep. i8 x, 707 708 18 i (?) Sisinnius f sep. 7 ii, 708 708 25 iii, cs. See also:Constantinus I. 9 iv, 715 715 19 v, cs. S. Gregorius II. t sepel. I I ii. 731 731 II ii, el. S. Gregorius III. t sep. 29 xi, 741 741 cs. S. See also:Zacharias Lt sep. 15 iii, 752 752 ni, el. Stephanus II. t ex. iii, 752 752 ex. in, el. Stephanus III. t sep. 26 iv, 757 757 29 v, cs. S. See also:Paulus I. f 28 vi, 767 767 5 vu, cs. Constantinus IL depos. 6 viii, 768 768 7 viii, cs. Stephanus IV t Iii, 772 772 I ii, el. Hadrianus I. t 25 xii, 795 795 26 xii, el. S. Leo III. t sep. 12 vi, 816 816 vi, el. Stephanus V. t 24 i, 817 817 25 i, cs. S. Paschalis I. t C. 14 v, 824 82 v–vi Eugenius II. t viii, 827 7 827 See also:Valentinus t ex. See also:ann. 827 827 ex. ann. Gregorius IV. t i, 844 847 i Sergius II. t 27 i, 847 847 10 iv, cs. S. Leo IV. t 17 vii, 855 855 29 ix, cs. Benedictus III. f 7 iv, 858 858 2 iv, cs. S. Nicolaus I. t 13 xi, 867 4 867 14 xii, cs. Hadrianus II. t C. i xii, 872 872 14 xii Joannes VIII, t 15 xii, 882 882 C. xii arinus I. t C. v, 884 884 C. v, el. Hadrianus III. t C. viii–ix, 885 885 C. ix, el. Stephanus VI. t c. ix, 891 891 C. ix See also:Formosus t 23 v, 896 896 C. 23 v, el. Bonifacius VI. t C. 6 vi, 896 896 a. ii vi,intrus Stephanus VI. (VII.) amot.t vii, 897 897 vii, cs. See also:Romanus t c. xi, 897 897 C. xi See also:Theodorus II. t post 20 See also:dies 898 C. vi, es. Joannes IX. t vii, 900 900 6–26 vii Benedictus IV. t viii, 903 903 C. viii Leo V. t C. ix, 903 903 C. x See also:Christophorus amot. it 904 904 29,1, es. Sergius III, t p 4 ix, 911 911 C. 1X, CS. Anastasius See also:IIL f C. xi, 913 913 C. xi, cs. Lando t C. v, 914 914 15 v, CS. Joannes X. in carcere 929 928 C. Vii, CS. Leo VI. t C. ii, 929 929 C. ii. Cs. Stephanus VIII. t 15 iii, 931 931 C. cs. Joannes XI. t i, 936 936 a. 9 i, cs. Leo VI. (VII.) t vii, 939 939 a. 19 vii,cons. Stephanus IX. t C. x, 942 942 a. II xi, cons. See also:Marinus II. t C. iv, 946 946 C. iv Agapetus II. t C. 8 xi, 955 955 C. xi, es. Joannes XII. (amot. 4 xii, 963) t 14 v, 964 963 4 xii, el. Leo VIII. t C. 965 964 v, el. Benedict V. exul 965 965 I x, cs. Joannes XIII. t 6 ix, 972 973 19 i, Cs. Benedict VI. f occis. vii, 974 974 x Benedictus VII. t x, 983 983 ex. ann. Joannes XIV. t occis. 20 viii, 984 984 Bonifacius VII. vii, 985 985 I ix, cs. Joannes XV. See also:tin. iv, 996 996 3 v, cs. Gregorius V. t ii, 999 999 In. iv, cs. Sylvester II. (See also:Gerber') t 12 v, 1003 1003 13 vi, cs. Joannes XVII. (Sicco) t 7 xii, 1003 1003 25 xii, cs. Joannes XVII I. t vi, 1009 1009 p. 20 vi, cs. Sergius IV. t i6—22 vi, 1012 VIII. 1012 22 vi, cs. 7 iv, 1024 Benedict 1024 24vi–I5vii,cs. Joannes XIX. f i, 1033 1033 1, cs. Benedictus IX. resignat. I v, 1045 Io45 I v, intr. Gregorius VI. resignat. 20 xii, 1046 1046 25 xii, cs. Clemens II. t 9 x, 1047 1048 17 vii, cs. Damasus II. t 9 viii, 1048 1049 12 ii, cs. S. Leo IX. f 19 iv, 1054 1055 13 iv, cs. Victor II. t 28 vii, 1057 1057 2 viii, el. Stephanus X. t 29 iii, 1058 io58 5 iv, el. Benedict X. expels. C. i, 1059 i As recorded in the registers of the Roman Church lfrom P. B. Gams, Series episcoporum Romanae ecclesiae/. Date of Election Date of Death. or Consecration. 1605 v, el. Paulus V. j' 28 1, 1621 1621 9 ii Gregorius XV. f 8 vii, '623 1623 6 viii, el. Urbanus VIII. t 29 vii, 1644 1644 15 ix Innocentius X. t 7 i, 1655 1655 7 iv Alexander VII. f 22 v, 1667 1667 20 vi Clemens IX. f 9 xii, 1669. 1670 29 iv Clemens X. f 22 vii, 1676 1676 21 ix Innocentius XI. f 12 vii, 1689 1689 6 x Alexander VIII. f I ii, 1691 1691 12 vii Innocentius XII. f 27 ix, I 1700 23 xi, el Clemens XI. f 19 iii, 1721 21 172' 8 v Innocentius XIII. t 7 iii, '724 1724 29 v $ 21 Benedictus XIII. ii, 1730 '730'2 vii Clemens XII. 6 ii, 1740 174o 17 viii Benedictus XIV. t 3 v, '758 '758 6 vii Clemens XIII. t 2 ii, 1769 '769 '9 v Clemens XIV. 22 ix, 1774 1775 15 ii Pius VI. f 29 viii, 1799 1800 '4 iii Pius VI!. t 20 viii, 1823 1823 28 ix Leo XII. f 'o ii, '829 '829 31 iii Pius VIII. t 30 xi, 1830 '831 2 ii Gregorius XVI. vi, '846 1846 '6 vi, el. Pius IX. t 3 vi, 1877 '877 vi, el Leo XIII. t 20 vii, 1903 1903 4 viii, el. Pius X. General.—Of encyclopaedias may be mentioned the New See also:Schaff-See also:Herzog See also:Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge (New See also:York, 1908 sqq.); the Catholic Encyclopaedia (New York, 1907 sqq.); Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., See also:Leipzig, 1896 sqq.) ; Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed., See also:Freiburg-See also:im-See also:Breisgau, 1882–1901); G. See also:Moroni, Dizionario di erudizione storico-ecclesiaslica (Venice, 1840 sqq.), all of which contain articles on individual popes and subjects connected with the papacy, with See also:bibliographies. For See also:chronological detail, see Z. V. Lobkowitz, Statistik der Piipsle (Freiburg i. B., 1905). Carefully indexed source materials in the original See also:languages are given by C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte See also:des Papsttums and des rbmischen Katholizismus (2nd enlarged ed., See also:Tubingen, 1901); many fragments in translation under " Papacy " in History for Ready Reference, ed. by J. N. Larned (vols. iv., vi., vii. See also:Springfield, '895–'910). Helpful Church histories are F. X. Funk, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichle (5th ed., See also:Paderborn, 1907) ; A. Knopfler, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichle (4th ed., Freiburg i. B., 1906), both Roman Catholic; also the Lutheran work of J. H. See also:Kurtz, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichle, ed N. Bonwetsch and P. Tschackert (14th ed., Leipzig, 1906). (W. W. R.*) Period I. To zo87.—A bibliography of the history of the papacy during the first eleven centuries would embrace all the vast number of works on the history of the Church during this period. Of these a selected list will be found in the bibliography to the article CHURCH HISTORY. Here it must suffice to mention certain modern works bearing more particularly on this period. See also:Harnack, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, 3rd ed. i. 400 et seq. ; See also:Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, vol. i. §§ 22–25, 74; Sohm, Kirchenrecht, vol. i. § 29 et seq.; Loning, Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenrechls (1878); See also:Duchesne, Eglises separees (1905), See also:Les Premiers temps de Petal pontifical (19o4). (L. D.*) Period II. (a) From zo87 to 1124.—L. Paulot's Un Pape See also:francais: Urbain II. (Paris, 1903), which is written with a Catholic See also:bias, is the only See also:biography of Urban II. that is at all full. Cf. M. F. Stern, Zur Biographie des Papstes Urbans II. (Berlin, 1883). On See also:Paschal II., see E. See also:Franz, Papst Paschalis II. (See also:Breslau, 1877); W. Schum, Die Politik Papst Paschals II. gegen Kaiser Heinrich V. im Jahre 1112 (Erfurt, 1877) ; and the excellent " Etude des relations entre le Saint-Siege at le royaume de France de 1099 a 1,08," published by See also:Bernard See also:Monod in the Positions des theses des eleves de l'Ecole des Charles (1904). The Bullarium of Calixtus II. and the History (Paris, 189') of his pontificate have been published by Ulysse Robert. Cf. M. See also:Maurer, Papst Calixt II. (See also:Munich, '889). Besides these monographs, useful information on the history of the popes of this period will be found in the following: R. Rohricht, Geschichte des Konigreichs See also:Jerusalem (See also:Innsbruck, '898) and Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Innsbruck, 1901); H. von See also:Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881) ; H. Hagenmeyer. Peter der Eremit (Leipzig, 1879) ; F. Chalandon, Essai sur le regne d'See also:Alexis I. Comnene (Paris, 1900); G. See also:Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbiicher des deutschen Reiches enter Heinrich IV. and Heinrich V. (Leipzig, '890 et seq.); Carl Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII. (Leipzig, 1894) ; See also:Ernst Bernheim, Zur Geschichte des W1lrmser Konkordates (See also:Gottingen, '878) ; Martin Rule, The Life and Times of St See also:Anselm (2 vols., London, '883); and Klemm, Der Investilurstreit unter Heinrich I. (b) From 1124 to 1198.—Monographs dealing expressly with the Date of Election or Consecration_ 1059 24 i, cs. Io61 I x, el. 1073 22 iv, el. Io86 24 v, el. 'o88 12 iii, el. 1099 13 viii, el. 1'18 24 i, el. 1119 2 ii, el. 1124 15—16 xii, el. 1130 14 ii, el. 1143 26 ix, el. 1144 12 iii, el. 1145 15 ii, el. 1153 12 Vii, cs. 1154 4 xii, el. 1159 7 ix, el. 1'8' I ix 1185 25 xi 1187 2' x, el. 1187 19 xii, el. 1191 30 iii, el. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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