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SAINTINE, JOSEPH XAVIER (1798-1865)
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See also:SAINTINE, See also:JOSEPH See also:XAVIER (1798-1865) , See also:French novelist and dramatist, whose real surname was See also:BONIFACE, was See also:born in See also:Paris on the loth of See also:July 1798. In 1823 he produced a See also:volume of See also:poetry in the manner of the Romanticists, entitled Poemes, odes, epitres. In 1836 appeared Picciola, the See also:story of the See also:comte de Charney, a See also:political prisoner in See also:Piedmont, whose See also:reason was saved by his cult of a tiny See also:flower growing between the paving stones of his See also:prison yard. This story is a masterpiece of the sentimental See also:kind, and has been translated into many See also:European See also:languages. He produced many other novels, none of striking individuality with the exception of Seul (1857), which purported to be the See also:authentic See also:record of See also: St Ingbert is named after the Irish See also:saint, St Ingobert, and belonged for 300 years to the electorate of See also:Trier.
ST IVES, a See also:market town, municipal See also:borough and seaport in the St Ives See also:parliamentary See also:division of See also:Cornwall, See also:England, to m. N.N.E. of See also:Penzance, on a See also:branch of the See also:Great Western railway. Pop. (19o1) 6699. It lies near the W. See also:horn of St Ives See also:Bay on the N. See also:coast. The older streets near the See also:harbour are narrow and irregular, but on the upper slopes there are See also:modern terraces with See also:good houses. The small harbour, protected by a See also:breakwater, originally built by See also: See also:Area, 1890 acres.
The town takes name from St Hya, or Ia, an Irish virgin and See also:martyr, who is said to have accompanied St Piran on his missionary See also:journey to Cornwall in the 5th See also:century, and to have landed near this See also:place. The Patent Rolls disclose an almost continuous See also:series of trials for piracy and See also:plunder by St Ives sailors from the beginning of the 14th to the end of the 16th century. A See also:mere chapelry of Lelant and the less important member of the distant See also:manor of Ludgvan Leaze, which in Domesday See also:Book appears as Luduam, it had no fostering See also:hand to See also:minister to its growth. In See also:order to See also:augment the See also:influence of the Tudors in the See also:House of See also:Commons, See also: In 1835 a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors were invested with the See also:administration of the borough. In 1832 St Ives lost one of its members, and in 1885 the other. Both markets are now held, but only one of the fairs. This takes place on the Saturday nearest St See also:Andrew's See also:day. ST IVES, a market town and municipal borough in the See also:northern parliamentary division of See also:Huntingdonshire, England, mainly on the See also:left (See also:north) See also:bank of the See also:Ouse, 5 M. E. of See also:Huntingdon by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2910. The See also:river is crossed by an old See also:bridge said to have been built by the abbots of See also:Ramsey See also:early in the 15th century. A building over the centre See also:pier of the bridge was once used as a See also:chapel. The See also:causeway (1827) on the south See also:side of the river is built on See also:arches so as to assist the flow of the river in time of See also:flood. The church of All See also:Saints is Perpendicular, with earlier portions. A curious See also:custom is practised annually in this church in connexion with a See also:bequest made by a certain Dr See also:Robert See also:Wilde in 1678: it is the See also:distribution of Bibles to six boys and six girls of the town. The See also:original See also:provision was that the Bibles should be See also:cast for by See also:dice on the Communion table. See also:Oliver See also:Cromwell was a See also:resident in St Ives in 1634-1635, but the house which he inhabited—Slepe See also: ST See also:JEAN-D'ANGELY, a town of western See also:France, See also:capital of an See also:arrondissement in the See also:department of See also:Charente-Inferieure, 33 M. E. of See also:Rochefort by rail. Pop. (1906) 6242. St Jean lies on the right bank of the Boutonne, which is navigable for small vessels. The See also:parish church of St Jean stands on the site of an See also:abbey church of the 13th century, of which some remains are left. In 1568 the monastery was destroyed by the See also:Huguenots, but much of it was rebuilt in the 17th and 18th centuries, to which See also:period belong two towers and the See also:facade of an unfinished church. St Jean owes the suffix of its name to the neighbouring See also:forest of Angery (Angeriacum). See also:Pippin I. of See also:Aquitaine in the 9th century established there a See also:Benedictine monastery which was afterwards reputed to possess the See also:head. of John the Baptist. This relic attracted hosts of pilgrims; a town See also:grew up, took the name of St Jean d'Angeri, afterwards d'Angely, was fortified in 1131, and in 1204 received a charter from Philip See also:Augustus. The See also:possession of the place was disputed between French and See also:English in the Hundred Years' See also:War, and between Catholics and Protestants at a later date. In 1569 it capitulated to the duke of See also:Anjou (afterwards Henry III.). See also: In 1558, owing to the depredations of its privateers, the Spaniards attacked and burned the town. In 1627, however, it was able to equip 8o vessels, which succeeded in saving the island of R6 from the duke of See also:Buckingham. In 166o the treaty of the Pyrenees was signed at St Jean-de-Luz, and was followed by the See also:marriage there of the Infanta Maria See also:Theresa and Louis XIV. At that time the See also:population numbered r6,000. The cession of Newfoundland to England in 1713, the loss of See also:Canada, and the silting-up of the harbour were the three causes which contributed to the decline 'of the town.
ST JOHN, CHARLES See also: St John, 1884); Notes of Natural History and Sport in Morayshire, with Memoir by C. Innes (1863i 2nd ed. 1884). They are written in a graphic See also:style, and illustrated with engravings, many of them from See also:clever See also:pen-and-See also:ink sketches of his own.
ST JOHN, See also: The results of his journey were published under the titles Egypt and Mohammed See also:Ali, or Travels in the Valley of the See also:Nile (2 vols., 1834), Egypt and Nubia (1844), and See also:Isis, an See also:Egyptian See also:Pilgrimage (2 vols., 1853). On his return he settled in London, and for many years wrote political " leaders " for the Daily See also:Telegraph. In 1868 he published a See also:Life of See also:Sir See also:Walter See also:Raleigh, based on researches in the archives at See also:Madrid and elsewhere. He died in London on the 22nd of September 1875. Besides the works mentioned St John was also the author of Journal of a See also:Residence in See also:Normandy (183o) ; Lives of Celebrated Travellers (183o) ; See also:Anatomy of Society (1831) ; History, See also:Manners and Customs of the See also:Hindus (1831) ; See also:Margaret See also:Ravenscroft, or Second Love (3 vols., 1835) ; The Hellenes, or Manners and Customs of See also:Ancient See also:Greece (1842); Sir Cosmo See also:Digby, a novel (1844); There and Back Again in See also:Search of Beauty (1853) ; The See also:Nemesis of See also:Power (1854) See also:Philosophy at the Foot of the See also:Cross (1854); The See also:Preaching of See also:Christ (1855) ; The See also:Ring and the See also:Veil, a novel (1856) ; Life of Louis See also:Napoleon (1857); History of the Four Conquests of England (1862); and Weighed in the See also:Balance, a novel (1864). He also edited, with notes, various English classics. Of his four sons, all journalists and authors of some See also:literary distinction—See also:Percy ' Bolingbroke (1821–1889), See also:Bayle, See also:Spenser and See also:Horace See also:Roscoe (182–1888)—the second, BAYLE ST JOHN (1822-1869), began contributing to the See also:periodicals when only thirteen. When twenty he wrote a series of papers for See also:Fraser under, the See also:title " De re vehiculari, or a Comic History of Chariots." To the same See also:magazine he contributed a series of essays on See also:Montaigne, and published in 1857 Montaigne the Essayist, a See also:Biography, in 4 volumes. During a residence of two years in Egypt he wrote The Libyan Desert (1849). While in Egypt he learnt Arabic and"visited the See also:oasis of See also:Siwa. On his return he settled for some time in Paris and published Two Years in a Levantine See also:Family (185o) and Views in the Oasis of Siwah (185o). After a second visit to the See also:East he published See also:Village Life in Egypt (1852) ; See also:Purple Tints of Paris: Characters and Manners in the New See also:Empire (1854); The Louvre, or Biography of a Museum (1855) ; the Subalpine Kingdom, or Experiences and Studies in See also:Savoy (1856); Travels of an Arab See also:Merchant in the Soudan (1854) Maretimo, a Story of See also:Adventure (1856) ; and See also:Memoirs of the Duke of Saint-See also:Simon in the Reign of Louis XIV. (4 vols., 1857).
ST JOHN, OLIVER (c. 1598-1673), English statesman and See also:judge, was the son of Oliver St John. There were two branches of the ancient family to which he belonged, namely, the St Johns of Bletso in See also:Bedfordshire, and the St Johns of Lydiard Tregoze in See also:Wiltshire, both descendants of the St Johns of See also:Staunton St John in See also:Oxfordshire. Oliver St John was a member of the See also:senior branch, being great-See also:grandson of Oliver St John, who was created See also:Baron St John of Bletso' in 1559, and a distant See also:cousin of the 4th baron who was created See also:earl of Bolingbroke in 1624, and who took an active See also:part on the parliamentary side of the See also:Civil War, being killed at the See also:battle of Edgehill. Oliver was educated at Queens' See also:College, See also:Cambridge, and was called to the See also:bar in 1626. He appears to have got into trouble with the court in connexion with a seditious publication, and to have associated himself with the future popular leaders John See also:Pym and Lord Saye. In 1638 he defended See also:Hampden on his refusal to pay Ship See also:Money, on which occasion he made a notable speech. In the same year he married, as his second wife, See also: None the less he
' This title is still held by the family lineally descended from the 1st baron, said by J. H. See also:Round to be the only See also:peerage family descended in the male See also:line from an ancestor living in the time of Domesday Book.took an active part in promoting the See also:impeachment of See also:Strafford and in preparing the bills brought forward by the popular party in the Commons, and was dismissed from See also:office in 1643. On the outbreak of the Civil War, he became recognized as one of the parliamentary leaders. In the See also:quarrel between the parliament and the See also:army in 1647 he sided with the latter, and throughout this period he enjoyed Cromwell's entire confidence.
In 1648 St John was appointed chief See also:justice of the See also:common pleas; and from this time he devoted himself mainly to his judicial duties. He refused to See also:act as one of the commissioners for the trial of Charles. He had no hand in See also:Pride's Purge, nor in the constitution of the See also:Commonwealth. In 1651 he went to the See also:Hague as one of the envoys to negotiate a See also:union between England and See also: By his first wife St John had two sons and two daughters. His daughter Johanna married Sir Walter St John of Lydiard Tregoze and was the grandmother of Viscount Bolingbroke, By his second wife he had two See also:children, and after her See also:death he married, in 1645, Elizabeth, daughter of See also:Daniel Oxenbridge.
See the above-mentioned Case of Oliver St John (London, 166o), and St John's Speech to the Lords, See also:Jan. 7th, 1640, concerning Ship-money (London, 164o). See also See also:Mark See also:Noble, Memoirs of the Protectoral House of Cromwell, vol. ii. (2 vols., London, 1787) ; See also:Anthony a See also:Wood, See also:Fasti Oxonien.tis, edited by P. See also:Bliss (4 vols., London, 1813); See also:Edward See also:Foss, The See also:Judges of England, vol. vi. (9 vols., London, 1848) ; S. R. See also:Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (3 vols., London, 1886–1891), and History of the Commonwealth and See also:Protectorate (3 vols., London, 1894–1901) ; Lord See also:Clarendon, History of the See also:Rebellion and Civil See also:Wars in England (7 vols., See also:Oxford, 1839) ; See also:Thurloe See also:State Papers (7 vols., London, 1742) ; See also:Edmund See also:Ludlow, Memoirs, edited by C. H. See also:Firth (2 vols., Oxford, 1894) ; See also: H. Firth's See also:art. in See also:Diet. of Nat. Biog., vol. 1. (London, 1897). (R. J. M.) ST JOHN, the capital of St John See also:county, New See also:Brunswick. Canada, in 45° 14' N., and 66° 3' W., 481 m. from See also:Montreal by the See also:Canadian Pacific railway. Pop. (1901) 40,711. It is situated at the mouth of the St John river on a rocky See also:peninsula. With it are incorporated the neighbouring towns of See also:Carleton and (since 1889) See also:Portland. The river, which is spanned by two See also:bridges, enters the harbour through a rocky See also:gorge, which is passable by See also:ships for See also:forty-five minutes during each ebb and flow of the See also:tide. The harbour level at high tide (see FuNny, BAY oF) is 6 to 12 ft. higher than that of the river, but at See also:low tide about as much below it, hence the phenomenon of a fall outwards and inwards at every tide. St John is an important station of the Intercolonial, Canadian Pacific, and New Brunswick Southern See also:railways, and shares with See also:Halifax the See also:honour of being the chief winter See also:port of the Dominion, the harbour being deep, sheltered and See also:free from See also:ice. It is the distributing centre for a large See also:district, See also:rich in agricultural produce and See also:lumber, and has larger exports than Halifax, though less imports. It is also the centre of fisheries which employ nearly z000 men, and has important industries, such as saw, grist, cotton and woollen See also:mills, See also:carriage, See also:box and See also:furniture factories, See also:boiler and See also:engine shops. The beauty of the scenery makes it a pleasant residential See also:city. St John was visited in 1604 by the Sieur de Monts (156o–c. 163o) and his See also:lieutenant See also:Champlain, but it was not until 1635 that Charles de la Tour (d. 1666) established a trading See also:post, called Fort St Jean (see See also:Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada), which existed under French See also:rule until 1758, when it passed into the hands of See also:Britain. In 1783 a body of See also:United Empire See also:Loyalists landed at St John and established a city, called See also:Parr Town until 1785, when it was in. corporated with See also:Conway (Carleton), under royal charter, as the city of St John. It soon became and has remained the largest town in the See also:province, but for military reasons was not chosen as the capital (see See also:FREDERICTON). Its growth has been checked by several destructive fires, especially that of See also:June 1877, when See also:half of it was swept away, but it has since been rebuilt in great part of more solid materials. (W. L. G.) ST JOHN, an island in the Danish See also:West Indies. It lies 4 M. E. of St Thomas, is 10 m. long and 2? M. wide; area 21 sq. m. It is a See also:mass of rugged mountains, the highest of which is See also:Camel Mountain (1270 ft.). Although one of the best watered and most fertile of the Virgin See also:Group, it has little See also:commerce. It is a free port, and possesses in See also:Coral Bay the best harbour of See also:refuge in the See also:Antilles. The village of Cruxbay lies on the northern coast. Pop. (1901) 925. ST JOHN, a river of New Brunswick, Canada, rising yin two branches, in the state of See also:Maine, U.S.A., and in the province of See also:Quebec. The See also:American branch, known as the Walloostook, flows N.E. to the New Brunswick frontier, where it turns S.E. and for 8o m. forms the See also:international boundary. A little above See also:Grand Falls the St John enters Canada and flows through New Brunswick into the Bay of See also:Fundy at St John. Its See also:total length is about 450 M. It is navigable for large steamers as far as Fredericton (86 m.), and in See also:spring and early summer for smaller vessels to Grand Falls (220 m.), where a series of falls and rapids See also:form a descent of 70 or 8o ft. Above the falls it is navigable for 65 m. It drains an area of 26,000 sq. m., of which half is in New Brunswick, and receives numerous tributaries. of which the chief are the Aroostook, Allagash, Madawaska (draining See also:Lake Temiscouata in Quebec), Tobique and Nashwaak. ST JOHN OF See also:JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF THE See also:HOSPITAL OF (Ordo fratrum hospitalariorum Hierosolymitanorum, Ordo militiae Sancti Johannis Baptistae hospitalis Hierosolymitani), known also later as the KNIGHTS OF See also:RHODES and the See also:SOVEREIGN ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF See also:MALTA. The history of this order divides itself naturally into four periods: (1) From its See also:foundation in Jerusalem during the First Crusade to its See also:expulsion from the See also:Holy See also:Land after the fall of the Latin kingdom in 1291; (2) from 1309–1310, when the order was established in Rhodes, to its expulsion from the island in 1522; (3) from 1529 to 1798, during which its headquarters were in Malta; (4) its development, as reconstituted after its virtual destruction in 1798, to the See also:present day. Early Developments.—See also:Medieval See also:legend set back the beginnings to the days of the See also:Maccabees, with King See also:Antiochus as the founder and See also:Zacharias, See also:father of the Baptist, as one of the first masters; later historians of the order maintained that it was established as a military order contemporaneously with the Latin See also:conquest of Jerusalem, and that it had no connexion with any earlier foundation (so P. A. See also:Paoli, De origine). This view would now seem to be disproved, and it is clear that the order was connected with an earlier Hospitale Hierosolymitanum.1 Such a hospital had existed in the Holy City, with rare interruptions, ever since it had become a centre of See also:Christian pilgrimage. About 1023 certain merchants of See also:Amalfi had purchased the site of the Latin See also:hospice established by See also:Charlemagne, destroyed in rolo with the other Christian establishments by order of the fanatical See also:caliph Hakim Biamrillah,2 and had there founded a hospital for pilgrims, served by See also:Benedictines and later dedicated to St John the Baptist.3 When, in 1087, the crusaders surrounded the Holy City, the head of this hospital was a certain See also:Gerard or 'Cf. the See also:bull of See also:Pope See also:Celestine II. to See also:Raymond du See also:Puy, in the See also:matter of the See also:Teutonic order, which describes the Hospital as " Hospitaiem domum sancte civitatis Jerusalem, que a longis retro temporibus Christi pauperum usibus dedicata, See also:tam christianorum quam etiam Sarracenorum tempore . . . . " (Le Roulx, Cartulaire, i. No. 154). 2 This See also:solution of the much debated question of the connexion of the Hospital with the Benedictine foundation of Sancta Maria See also:Latina is worked out in much detail by M. Delaville Le Roulx in his See also:Les Hospitaliers en Terre Sainte, See also:chap. i. 3 William of See also:Tyre says that they erected in that place an See also:altar to St John Eleemon, See also:patriarch of See also:Alexandria, renowned for his charities. This See also:mistake led to the widespread belief that this saint, and not St John the Baptist, was the original See also:patron of the order. A passage in the bull addressed by Pope See also:Paschal to Gerard (Cartulaire, No. 30) would seem to leave the See also:dedication in doubt: " Xenodochium, quod . . . juxta beati Johannis Baptistae ecclesiam instituisti." The patronage of St John may thus have merely been the result of this juxtaposition, as the See also:Templars took their name from the site of the See also:mother-house. Gerald,4 who earned their gratitude by assisting them in some way during the See also:siege.° After the See also:capture of the city he used his popularity to enlarge and reconstitute the hospital. If, as M. Le Roulx surmises, he had previously been affiliated to the Benedictines, he now left them and adopted for his order the Augustinian rule. Donations and privileges were showered upon the new See also:establishment. See also:Godfrey de See also:Bouillon led the way by granting to it in Jerusalem itself the casal Hessilia (Es Silsileh) and two bakehouses.° See also:Kings, nobles and prelates followed suit, not in the Holy Land only, but in See also:Provence, France, See also:Spain, See also:Portugal, England and See also:Italy: in Portugal a whole province was in 1114 made over to Gerard and his brethren (Cariul. i. No. 34). In 1113 Pope Paschal II. took the order and its possessions under his immediate See also:protection (bull of Feb. 15th to Gerard, Cartel. i. No. 30), his act being confirmed in 1119 by See also:Calixtus II. and subsequently by other popes. Gerard was indeed, as Pope Paschal called him, the "institutor" of the order, if not its founder. It retained, however, during his lifetime its purely eleemosynary See also:character. The armed See also:defence of pilgrims may have been part of its functions, but its organization as an aggressive military force was the outcome of See also:special circumstances—the renewed activity of the See also:Saracens—and was the See also:work of Raymond du Puy, who succeeded as grand See also:master _on the death of Gerard (3rd of September 1120)? Not that Raymond can be proved to have given to his order anything of its later aristocratic constitution. There is no mention in his Rule8 of the division into knights, chaplains and sergeants; indeed, there is no mention of any military duties whatever. It merely See also:lays down certain rules of conduct and discipline for the brethren. They are to be See also:bound by the threefold See also:vow of chastity, poverty and obedience. They are to claim nothing for themselves See also:save See also:bread, See also:water and raiment; and this latter is to be of poor quality, " since our Lord's poor, whose servants we say we are, go naked and sordid, and it is a disgrace for the servant to be proud when his master is humble." Finally, the brethren are to See also:wear crosses on the See also:breast of their capes and mantles, " tit See also:Deus per ipsum See also:vexillum et fidem et operationem et obedientiam nos custodial." Yet that Raymond laid down military regulations for the brethren is certain. Their underlying principle is revealed by a bull of Pope Alexander III. addressed (I 178–1180) to the grand master See also:Roger See also:des See also:Moulins, in which he bids him, " according to the custom of Raymond," abstain from bearing arms save when the See also:standard of the Cross is displayed either for the defence of the kingdom or in an attack on a " See also:pagan " city.i° The statesmanlike qualities of Raymond du Puy rendered his long mastership See also:epoch-making for the order. When it was decided to fortify Ibelin (See also:Beit-Jibrin) as an outpost against attacks from the side of See also:Ascalon, it was to the Hospitallers that the building and defence of the new See also:castle were assigned; and from 1137 onwards they took a See also:regular part in the wars of the Cross. It was owing to Raymond's See also:diplomatic skill, too, that the order was enabled to profit by the bequest made to it by See also:Alphonso I. of See also:Aragon, who had died childless, of a third of his kingdom. To have claimed the literal fulfilment of this bequest would have been to See also:risk losing it all, and Raymond acted wisely in transferring the bequest, with certain important reservations, to Raymond See also:Berenger IV., See also:count of See also:Barcelona and See also:regent of 4 In spite of his fame, nothing is known of his origin. The surname " Tune " or " Tonque " often given to him is, as Le Roulx points out, merely the result of a copyist's See also:error for " Gerardus tune . . 8 According to the legend, he joined the defenders on the walls and, instead of hurling stones, hurled bread at the Christians, who were short of supplies. Haled before the Mussulman See also:governor, his accusers were confounded when the incriminating loaves they produced were discovered to be turned into stones. ° " Fours." So the charter of See also:Baldwin I. (Cartel. No. 20; cf. No. 225). In his Hospitaliers Le Roulx has "See also:tours," i.e. two towers, probably a misprint. 7 The existence of a certain Roger as grand master between Gerard and Raymond, maintained by some historians, is finally disproved by Raymond's own testimony: Reginmundus, per gratiam Dei post obitum domini See also:Giraldi factus servus pauperum Christi " (See also:Canal. i. No. 46). 4 The date of this can only be approximately assigned, in so far as it was confirmed by Pope See also:Eugenius III., who died in 1153. 9 For See also:text see Cartulaire, i. No. 70. 1° Cartul. i. No. 527. Aragon (16th of September 1140).' It was probably also during his sojourn in the West for the above purpose that Raymond secured from Pope Celestine II. the bull dated December 7th, 1143, subordinating to his See also:jurisdiction the Teutonic hospice, founded in 1128 by a See also:German See also:pilgrim and his wife in honour of the Blessed Virgin, which was the See also:nucleus of the Teutonic Order (q.v.). This order was to remain subordinate to the Hospitallers actually for some fifty years, and nominally for some See also:thirty years longer? Raymond took part in the Second Crusade and was present at the See also:council of the leaders held at See also:Acre, in 1148, which resulted in the See also:ill-fated expedition against See also:Damascus. The failure before Damascus was repaired five years later by the capture of Ascalon (19th of See also:August 1153), in which Raymond du Puy and his knights had a conspicuous See also:share. Meanwhile, in addition to its ever-growing See also:wealth, the order had received from successive popes privileges which rendered it, like the See also:companion order of the See also:Temple, increasingly See also:independent of and See also:obnoxious to the See also:secular See also:clergy. In 1135 See also:Innocent II. had confirmed to Raymond the privileges accorded by Paschal II., Calixtus II. and Honorious II., and in addition forbade the diocesan bishops to See also:interdict the churches of the Hospitallers, whom he also authorized, in case of a general interdict, to celebrate mass for themselves alone? In 1137 he gave them the privilege of Christian See also:burial during such interdicts and the right to open interdicted churches once a year in order to say mass and collect money' These bulls were confirmed by Eugenius III. in 1153 5 and See also:Anastasius IV. in 1154, the latter adding the per-mission for the order to have its own See also:priest, independent of the diocesan bishops.' In vain the patriarch of Jerusalem, attended by other bishops, journeyed to See also:Rome in 1155 to complain to See also:Adrian IV. of the Hospitallers' abuse of their privileges and to beg him to withdraw his renewal of his predecessor's bull? Far different was the effect produced by Raymond du Puy's triumphant progress through southern See also:Europe from the spring of 1157 onward. From the popes, the See also:emperor Frederick I., kings and nobles, he received fresh gifts, or the See also:confirmation of old ones. After the 25th of See also:October 1158, when his presence is attested at See also:Verona, this master builder of the order disappears from history; he died some time between this date and 116o, when the name of another grand master appears. During the thirty years of his rule the Hospital, which Gerard had instituted to meet a See also:local need, had become universal. In the East its growth was beyond calculation: kings, prelates and laity had overwhelmed it with wealth. In the West, all Europe combined to enrich it; from See also:Ireland to Bohemia and See also:Hungary, from Italy and Provence to Scandinavia, men vied with each other to attract it and establish it in their midst. It was clear that for this vast institution an elaborate organization was needed, and this need was probably the occasion of Raymond's presence in Europe. The priory of St Gilles already existed as the nucleus of the later See also:system; the development of this system took place after Raymond's death.
Constitution and Organization.—The rule of the Hospital, as formulated by Raymond du Puy, was based on that of the Augustinian Canons (q.v.). Its further developments, of which only the salient characteristics can be mentioned here, were closely analogous to those of the Templars (q.v.), whose statutes regulating the life of the brethren, the terms of See also:admission to the order, the See also:maintenance of discipline, and the See also:scale of punishments, culminating in expulsion (pert de la maison), are, mutatis mutandis, closely paralleled by those of the Hospitallers. These, too, were early (probably in Raymond's time) divided into three classes: knights (fratres milites), chaplains (fratres capellani), and serjeants (fratres servientes armigeri), with affiliated brethren (confratres) and " donats " (See also:donati, i.e. regular subscribers, as it were, to the order in return for its privileges and the ultimate right to enter the ranks of its knights). Similar, too, was the aristocratic rule which confined admission to the first
1 Cartul. i. No. 136. The arrangement was confirmed by the pope in 1158 (Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 59).
2 The foundation of the Teutonic Order as a See also:separate organization was solemnly proclaimed in the See also:palace of the Templars at Tyre on the 5th of See also: No. 1072). Cartul. i. No. 113. * lb. i. No. 122. 5 lb. i. No. 217. ° lb. i. No. 226. This renewal was dated 19th of December 1154 (lb. i. No. 229).class to sons born in lawful wedlock of knights' or members of knightly families, a rule which applied also to the donats.' For the See also:serjeant men-at-arms it sufficed that they should not be See also:serfs. Below these a See also:host of servientes did the See also:menial work. of the houses of the order, or worked as artisans or as labourers on the farms. All the higher offices in the order were filled by the knights, except the ecclesiastical—which See also:fell to the chaplains—and those of master of the squires and turcopolier (See also:commander of the See also:auxiliary See also:light See also:cavalry), which were reserved for the serjeants-at-arms. Each See also:knight was allowed three horses, each serjeant two. The fratres capellani ranked with the knights as eligible for certain temporal posts; at their head was the " conventual See also:prior " (clericorum magister et ecclesie custos, prior clericorum Hospitalis). In two important respects the Knights of St John differed from the Templars. The latter were a purely military organization; the Hospitallers, on the other hand, were at the outset preponderatingly a See also:nursing brotherhood, and, though this character was subordinated during their later period of military importance, it never disappeared. It continued to be a rule of the order that in its establishments it was for the sick to give orders, for the brethren to obey. The chapters were largely occupied with the building, furnishing, and improvement of hospitals, to which were attached learned physicians and surgeons, who had the privilege of messing with the knights. The revenues of particular properties were charged with providing luxuries (e.g. See also: The commanderies were grouped into priories, each under the rule of a prior (styled unofficially " grand prior," See also:magnus prior), and these again into provinces corresponding to certain countries, under the authority of grand commanders. These largest See also:groups crystallized in the 14th century as See also:national divisions under the name of "langues " (languages)." At the head of the whole organization was the grand master. The grand master was elected, from the ranks of the knights of justice, by the same See also:process as the grand master of the Templars (q.v.). Alone of the bailiffs (bailivi), as the officials of the order were generically termed. he held office for life. His authority 8 The knights were ultimately distinguished as " Knights of Justice " (chevaliers de justice) and " Knights of See also:Grace " (chevaliers de grace). The former were those who satisfied the conditions as to See also:birth, and were therefore knights " justly "; the latter were those who were admitted " of grace " for superlative merits. ' An exception was made in favour of the natural. sons of See also:counts and greater personages (See also:Statute 7 of 1270; Cartul. ii. 3396). 10 Their premier house in Europe was at Sigena in Aragon, which they still occupy. It was granted to them by Sancia of See also:Navarre, See also:queen of Aragon, in 3184, the order being definitively established there in 1188. Their ,rule, which is that of Augustinian Canonesses, and See also:dates from October 1188, is printed by Le Roulx, Cartulaire, i. No. 859. There is no word about nursing in it. In England the most important house was See also:Buckland. The chief Danish house survives in the Lutheran See also:convent of St John the Baptist at See also:Schleswig, a See also:Stilt for noble ladies, whose See also:superior has the title of prioress. On See also:solemn occasions a realistic See also:wax head of St John the Baptist on a charger is still produced. " Commander (comandeor, commandeur), with its Latin See also:translation preceptor, came into use as the title of these officials somewhat See also:late. In earlier documents they are styled ospitalarius, bajulus (See also:bailiff), magister (master). 12 Omitting the Anglo-Bavarian langue, created in 1782, the langues (in the 15th century) were eight in number. They were (I) Provence (grand priories of St Gilles and See also:Toulouse), (2) See also:Auvergne (grand priory of Auvergne), (3) France (grand priories of France, Aquitaine, See also:Champagne), (4) Italy (grand priories of See also:Lombardy, Rome, See also:Venice, See also:Pisa, See also:Capua, See also:Barletta, See also:Messina), (5) Aragon (castellany of Amposta, grand priories of See also:Catalonia and Navarre), (6) England (grand priories of England—including Scotland—and Ireland), (7) Germany (grand priories of Germany or Heitersheim, Bohemia, Hungary, See also:Dacia—i.e. Scandinavia—and the Bailiwick (Ballei) of was very great, but not See also:absolute. The supreme legislative and controlling power was vested in the general See also:chapter of the knights, at the periodical meetings of which the great See also:officers of the order had to give an account of their stewardship, and which alone had the right to pass statutes binding on the order The executive power of the grand master, like that of the great dignitaries immediately subordinate to him, was in the nature of a delegation from the chapter. He was assisted in its exercise by four See also:councils: (1) the " convent " or ordinary chapter, a See also:committee of the general chapter,' for administrative business; (2) a See also:secret council, for criminal cases and affairs of state; (3) a full council, to hear appeals from the two former;' and (4) the " See also:venerable chamber of the treasury " for See also:financial matters. To the general chapter at headquarters corresponded the chapters of the priories and the commanderies, which controlled the See also:action of the priors and commanders.
Immediately subordinate to the grand master were the seven great dignitaries of the order, known as the conventual bailiffs: the grand preceptor,' See also:marshal, See also:draper (Fr. draftier) or grand See also:conservator, hospitaller, treasurer, See also:admiral, turcopolier.4 The grand preceptor, elected by the chapter at the same time as the grand master and subject to his approval, was the lieutenant of the latter in his See also:absence, empowered to See also:seal for him and, in the event of his capture by the enemy, to act as See also:vice-master. The functions of the marshal, draper, treasurer and turcopolier were practically identical with those of the officials of the same titles in the order of Knights Templars. That of hospitailer, on the other hand, was naturally a See also:charge of exceptional importance in the order of St John; he had a seal of his own, and was responsible for everything concerning the hospitals of the order, the dispensing of hospitality, and of See also:alms. The admiral, as the name implies, was at See also:sea what the marshal was on land.' The office first appears in 1299 when the knights, after their expulsion from the Holy Land, had begun to organize their new sea-power in See also:Cyprus. As to the equipage and suites of the grand master and the great dignitaries, these were practically on the same scale and of the same nature as those described in the See also:article TEmt-PLARS for the See also:sister order. The grand master had the right himself to nominate his companions and the members of his See also:household (See also:seneschal, squires, secretaries, chaplains, &c.), which, as Le Roulx points out, was such as to enable him to figure as the equal of the kings and princes with whom he consorted.
The grand-mastership of See also: 391, 411). The failure of the expedition to Egypt, however, brought considerable odium on Gilbert d'Assailly, who See also:Brandenburg), (8) See also:Castile (grand priories of Castile and See also:Leon, and Portugal). Of the grand priories the most ancient and by far the most important was that of St Gilles, founded early in the 12th century, the authority of which extended originally over the whole of what is now France and a great part of Spain. In the 16th century its seat was transferred to See also:Arles. Out of this developed the langues of Auvergne, France, Aragon and Castile, with their subsidiary priories. The date of the creation, of the various grand commanderies differs greatly: that of Italy was established in the 13th century, the langue of Germany in 1422, that of Castile was split off from Aragon in 1462. The castellany of Amposta (founded 1157) ranked as a priory. The bailiwick of Brandenburg, which had long been practically independent of the grand prior of Germany, obtained the right to elect its own bailiff (Herrenmeister) in 1382, subject to the approval of the grand prior. In the Holy Land there were no priors; the commanderies were directly under the grand master, and the commanders (who retained the style of bailli, bailivus) ranked with the grand priors elsewhere. ' This seems to have consisted in practice of the great dignitaries of the order. See Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 314. 2 A peculiarity of the order of St John was the esgart des freres (esgart, See also:Lat. sguardium=court) which could be demanded by any knight who thought himself wronged by a decision of his superiors, even of the grand master. ' To be carefully distinguished from the regional grand preceptors or grand commanders, and also from the grand commander d'outremer, who represented the grand master in the West generally. 4 To these the grand bailiff (German, langue) and grand See also:chancellor (Castile) were added later.resigned the grand-mastership, probably in the autumn of 1170.' Under the short rule of the grand master Jobert (d. 1177) the question of a renewed attack on Egypt was mooted; but the confusion reigning in the Latin kingdom and, not least, the scandalous quarrels between the Templars and Hospitallers, rendered all aggressive action impossible. In 1179 the growing power of the two military orders received its first set back when, at the instance of the bishops, the Lateran Council forbade them to receive gifts of churches and See also:tithes at the hands of laymen without the consent of the bishops, ordered them to restore all " See also:recent "s gifts of this nature, and passed a number of decrees in See also:restraint of the abuse of their privileges. A more potent discipline was to befall them, however, at the hands of See also:Saladin, See also:sultan of Egypt, who in 1186 began his systematic conquest of the kingdom. It was the Hospitallers who, with the other religious orders, alone offered an organized resistance to his victorious advance. On the 1st of May 1187 occurred the defeat of See also:Tiberias, in which the grand master Gilbert des Moulins fell riddled with arrows, and this was followed on the 4th of July by the still more disastrous battle of Hittin. The flower of the Christian See also:chivalry was slain or captured; the Hospitallers and Templars who fell into his hands Saladin massacred in See also:cold See also:blood: On the 2nd of October Jerusalem fell. Ten brethren of the Hospital were allowed to remain for a year to look after the sick; the See also:rest took refuge at Tyre. In these straits Armengaud d'See also:Asp was elected grand master (1188) and the headquarters of the order were established at Margat (Markab), near the coast some distance northwards of Tripoli. In the interior the knights still held some scattered fortresses; but their great stronghold of Krak7 was reduced by See also:famine in September 1188 and See also:Beauvoir in the following January. The See also:news of these disasters once more roused the crusading spirit in Europe; the offensive against Saladin was resumed, the Christians concentrating their forces against Acre in the autumn of 1189. In the See also:campaigns that followed, of which See also:Richard I. of England was the most conspicuous See also:hero, and which ended in the recovery of Acre and the sea-coast generally for the Latin kingdom, the Hospitallers, under their grand master See also:Garnier de Naplouse' (Neapoli), played a prominent part. The grand-mastership of Geoff See also:roy de See also:Donjon, who succeeded Garnier in 1192 and ruled the order till 1202,9 was signalized, not by feats of arms, since the Holy Land enjoyed a See also:precarious peace, but by a steady restoration and development of the property and privileges of the order, by renewed quarrels with the Templars, and in 1188 by the establishment—in See also:face of the protests of the Hospitallers—of the Teutonic knights as a separate order. Under the grand-mastership of the pious Alphonso of Portugal, and of See also:Geoffrey le See also:Rat, who was elected on Alphonso's resignation in 1206, the knights. took a vigorous part in the quarrel as to the See also:succession in Antioch; under that of Garin de Montaigu (elected 1207) they shared in the expedition to Egypt (1218-1221), of which he had been a vigorous See also:advocate (see See also:CRUSADES: The Fifth Crusade). In 1222, at the instance of the emperor Frederick II., the grand master accompanied the king of Jerusalem and others to Europe to discuss the preparation of a new crusade, visiting Rome, proceeding thence to Paris and London, and returning to the Holy Land in 1225. The expedition failed of its See also:object so far as the organization of 6 See Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 76 sqq. The resignation led to See also:bitter divisions in the order. It was urged that the resignation was invalid without the consent of the general chapter and the pope; and a temporary See also:schism was the result. Gilbert was drowned in 1183 See also:crossing from See also:Dieppe to England, whither he had gone at the invitation of Henry II. The words " tempore moderno " were interpreted by Pope Alexander Ill. in a bull of the 1st of June 1179 as within ten years of the opening of the council (Cartul. 1. No. 566). 7 The stupendous ruins of Krak-des-Chevaliers (at See also:Kerak, S.E. of the Dead Sea) attest the wealth and power of the knights (for a restoration see CASTLE, fig. 5). The castle had been given to the Hospitallers by See also:Guillaume du Crac in 1142. In 1193 it was again in their hands, and was subsequently greatly enlarged and strengthened. It was finally captured by the Egyptians under Bibars in 1271. $ Garnier had been prior of England and later of France. 9 So Le Roulx, p. 119. a general crusade was concerned; but the Hospital received everywhere enormous accessions of property.' Garin de Montaigu died in 1228, after consolidating by his statesmanlike attitude the position and power of his order, on the See also:eve of Frederick II.'s crusade. In this crusade, conducted in spite of a papal See also:excommunication, the Hospitallers took no part, being rewarded with the approval of Pope See also:Gregory IX., who, in August 1229, issued a bull to the patriarch of Jerusalem ordering him to maintain the jurisdiction of .the Hospital over the Teutonic knights, who had dared to assist the German emperor? In 1233, under the grand master See also:Guerin, the Hospitallers took a leading part in the successful attack on the principality of See also:Hamah. The See also:motive of this, .however—which was no more than the refusal of the emir to pay them the See also:tribute due—seems to point to an increasing secularization of their spirit. In 1236 Pope Gregory IX. thought ii. necessary to threaten both them and the Templars with excommunication, to prevent their forming an affiance with the Assassins,' and in 1238 issued a bull in which he inveighed against the scandalous lives and relaxed discipline of the Hospitallers." Events were soon to expose the order to fresh tests. Under the grand-mastership of See also:Pierre de Vieille See also:Bride' occurred the brief " crusade " of Richard of Cornwall (11th of October 1240 to 3rd of May 1241). The truce concluded by Richard with the sultan of Egypt was accepted by the Hospitallers, rejected by the Templars, and after his departure something like a war See also:broke out between the two bodies. In the midst of the strife of parties, in which Richard of Cornwall had recognized the fatal weakness of the Christian cause to See also:lie, came the news of the invasion of the Chorasmians. On the 23rd of August the Tatar See also:horde took and sacked Jerusalem. On the' 7th of October, in alliance with the Egyptians under Bibars, it overwhelmed the Christian host at See also:Gaza. Of the Hospitallers only sixteen escaped; 325 of the knights were slain; and among the prisoners was the grand master, Guillaume de See also:Chateauneuf.6 Amid the general ruin that followed this defeat, the Hospitallers held out in the fortress of Ascalon, until forced to capitulate on the 15th of October 1247. Under the vice-master, the grand preceptor Jean de Ronay, they took part in 1249 in the Egyptian expedition of St Louis of France, only to share in the crushing defeat of Mansurah (11th of See also:February 1250). Of the knights present all were slain, except five who were taken prisoners, the vice-master and one other' At the instance of St Louis, after the conclusion of peace, 25 Hospitallers, together with the grand master Guillaume de Chateauneuf, were released.' On the withdrawal of St Louis from the Holy Land (See also:April 1254), a war of aggression and See also:reprisals broke out between Christians and Mussulmans; and no sooner was this ended by a precarious truce than the Christians fell to quarrelling among themselves. In the war between the Genoese and Venetians and their respective partisans, the Hospitallers and Templars fought on opposite sides. In spite of so great a See also:scandal and of the hopeless case of the Christian cause, the possessions of the order were largely increased during Guillaume de Chateauneuf's mastership, both in the Holy Land and in Europe. Under the grand-mastership of See also:Hugues de Revel, elected probably in 1255, the menace of a new Tatar invasion led to serious efforts to secure See also:harmony in the kingdom. In 1258 the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic knights decided to ' Detailed by Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, pp. 149-156. z Cartul. ii. No. 1944. The Teutonic knights refused to obey. In January 1240 Gregory called on them to explain their insubordination (No. 2247) and in March 1241 again ordered them to submit (No. 2270). Cartul. ii. No. 2149. 4 Cartul. ii. No. 2186. 6 Not Villebride. The name is a corruption of Vieille See also:Brioude (Le Roulx, Hosp. p. 183). 6 It has been generally supposed, on the authority of the chronica majora of See also:Matthew of Paris (iv. 307-311), that the grand-master was killed at Gaza. ' See the contemporary See also:letter, Cartulaire, ii. No. 252I.
8 Cartul. ii. Nos. 2540-2541.submit their disputes in See also:Syria, Cyprus and See also:Armenia to See also:arbitration, a decision which See also:bore See also:fruit in 126o in the See also:settlement of their See also:differences in Tripoli and Margat. The satisfactory arrangement was possibly affected by the result of a combined attack made in 1259 on the Hospitallers by the Templars and the brethren of St See also:Lazarus and St Thomas, which had resulted in the See also:practical extermination of the aggressors, possibly also by the crushing defeat of the Templars and the Syrian barons by the Turcomans at Tiberias in 126o. However achieved, the See also:concord was badly needed; for Bibars, having in 126o driven back the See also:Tatars and established himself in the sultanate of Egypt, began the series of campaigns which ended in the destruction of the Latin kingdom. In 1268 Bibars conquered Antioch, and the Christian power was confined to Acre, See also:Chateau Merin, Tyre, See also:Sidon, and the castles of Margat, Krak and Belda (Baldeh), in which the Hospitallers still held out. The See also:respite afforded by the second crusade of St Louis was ended by his death at See also:Tunis in 1270. On the 3oth of March 1271 the great fortress of Krak, the See also: The situation, however, was desperate, and the grand master See also:Nicolas Lorgne, who had succeeded Hugues de Revel in 1277, wrote despairing letters of See also:appeal to Edward I. of England. On the 25th of May 1285, Margat surrendered to the sultan Kalaun (Mansur Saifaldin). Not even the strong character and 'high courage of Jean de See also:Villiers, who succeeded Nicolas Lorgne as grand master in 1285, could do more than stave off the ultimate disaster. The Hospitallets assisted in the vain defence of Tripoli, which fell on the 26th of April 1289. On the 18th of May 1291 the Mussulmans stormed Acre, the last See also:hope of the Christians in the Holy Land. Jean de Villiers, wounded, was carried on See also:board a ship, and sailed to Limisso in Cyprus, which became the headquarters of the order. For the remaining two years of his life Jean de Villiers was occupied in attempting the reorganization of the shattered order. The demoralization in the East was, however, too profound to admit a ready cure. The knights, represented by the grand dignitaries, addressed a See also:petition to Pope Boniface VIII. in 1295 asking for the See also:appointment of a permanent council of seven difinitores to control the grand master, who had become more and more autocratic. The pope did not consent; but in a severe letter to the new grand master, Eudes de See also:Pin, he sternly reproved him for the irregularities of which he had been guilty.' Li 1296 Eudes was succeeded by Guillaume de Villaret, grand prior of St Gilles, who for three years after his See also:election remained in Europe, regulating the affairs of the order. In 1300, in response to the urgent remonstrances of the knights, he appeared in Cyprus. In 1299 an unnatural alliance of the Christians and Mongols gave a momentary prospect of regaining the Holy Land; in 1300 the Hospitallers took part in the See also:raid of King Henry II. (de See also:Lusignan) of Cyprus in Egypt, and gained some temporary successes on the coast of Syria. Of more See also:advantage for the See also:prestige of the order, however, were the immense additions pf property and privileges which Guillaume de Villaret had secured in Europe from the pope and many kings and princes,10 and the reform of the rule and drastic reorganization of the order promulgated in a series of statutes between 1300 and 1304, the year of Guillaume's death 11 Of these changes the most significant was the See also:definition of the See also:powers and status of the admiral, a new great dignitary created in 1299. The grand-mastership of Foulques de Villaret, Guillaume's 9 Cartulaire, iii. Nos. 4267, 4293; cf. the letter of the chapter-general to Guillaume de Villaret, iii. No. 4310. 10 Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 259 sqq. 11 These statutes are printed in the Cartulaire, iii. Nos. 4515, iv. Nos. 4549, 4574, 4612. See also:nephew and successor,) was destined to be eventful for the order. On the 5th of June 1305 See also:Bertrand de Got became pope as See also:Clement V. The new pope consulted the grand master of the Templars and Hospitallers as to the organization of a new crusade, and at the same time raised the question of the See also:fusion of the military orders, a See also:plan which had already been suggested by St Louis, discussed at the council of See also:Lyons in 1274, and approved by the pope's patron Philip IV. of France. The proposal broke down on the opposition of Jacques de See also:Molay, grand master of the Temple; but the desired result was obtained by other and more question-able means. In October 1307 Philip IV. caused all the Templars in France, including the grand master, to be arrested on charges of See also:heresy and See also:gross immorality; Pope Clement V., a creature of the French king, reluctantly endorsed this action, and at his instance the other sovereigns of Europe followed the example of Philip. The famous long-See also:drawn-out trial of the Templars followed, ending at the council of See also:Vienne in 1314, when Pope Clement decreed the See also:dissolution of the order of the Temple and at the same time assigned the bulk of its property to the Hospital.2 (See TEMPLARS, KNIGHTS.) Meanwhile an event had occurred which marks an epoch in the history of the order of the Hospital. In 13o6 Foulques de Villaret, anxious to find a centre where the order would be untrammelled by obligations to another power as in Cyprus, came to an agreement with a Genoese pirate named Vignolo de' Vignoli for a concerted attack on Rhodes and other islands belonging to the See also:Greek emperor. The exact date of their completed conquest of the island is uncertain; 3 nor is it clear that the grand master took a See also:personal part in it. By command of the pope he had left Cyprus for Europe at the end of 1306 or the beginning of 1307, and he did not return to the East till late in 1309. He returned, however, not to Cyprus but to Rhodes, and it is with 1310, therefore, when its headquarters were established in the latter island, that the second period of the history of the order of the Hospital opens .4 The Knights in Rhodes.—The history of the order for the next fifty years is very obscure. Certain changes, however, took place which profoundly modified its character. The most important of these was its definitive division into " langues." The beginnings of this had been made long before; but the system was only legalized by the general chapter at See also:Montpellier in 1330. Hitherto the order had been a See also:cosmopolitan society, in which the French See also:element had tended to predominate; henceforth it became a federation of national See also:societies united only for purposes of commerce and war. To the headship of each " langue " was attached one of the great dignitaries of the order, which thus came to represent, not the order as a whole but the interests of a See also:section.5 The 'motive of this change was probably, as See also:Prutz suggests,6 1 M. Le Roulx dates his election between the 23rd of See also:November 13o4 and the 3rd of November 1305 (See also:Hose. p. 268). 2 The Templars' property in the Spanish peninsula and See also:Majorca was specially excepted, being subsequently assigned to the sovereigns, who transferred some of it to the native military orders. Nor did the Hospitallers receive by any means all of the rest. Philip IV. charged against the Hospital an enormous See also:bill for expenses incurred in the trial of the Templars, including, as one See also:item, those for torturing the knights. In France at least the -Iospitallers complained that they were actually out of See also:pocket. See Finke, Papsttum and Unto.-.gang des Tempelherrenordens, i. ad fin. None the less, the great See also:accession of territorial property necessitated the subdivision of the See also:peat regional jurisdictions, notably that of the priory of St Gilles, Into new grand priories. 3 The question is discussed in detail by M. Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, pp. 278 sqq. He himself dates the surrender of the castle of Rhodes in 1308. Cf. Hans Prutz, "Anfange der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos " in Sitzungsber. der K. Bay. Akad. d. Wissenschaften (1908), i. Abhandlung. ' Foulques de Villaret's head seems to have been turned by his success. His early vigour and statesmanlike qualities gave place to luxury, debauchery and a tyrannical See also:temper. He was ultimately deposed, and died at the castle of Teyran in See also:Languedoc in 1327. 6 The great dignitaries were distributed as follows: Grand commander of Provence, the grand preceptor; Auvergne, the grand marshal; France, the grand hospitaller; Italy, the grand admiral; Aragon, the grand conservator or draper; England, the turcopolier; Germany, the grand bailiff; Castile, the grand chancellor. ' " See also:Die Anfange der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos."fear of the designs of Philip IV. of France and his successors to which point had been given by the fate of the Templars, and the consequent See also:desire to destroy the preponderance of the French element? The character and aims of the order were also profoundly affected by their newly acquired See also:sovereignty—for the shadowy overlordship of the Eastern emperor was soon forgotten—and above all by its seat. The Teutonic order had established its sovereignty in See also:Prussia, in wide and ill-defined See also:spheres beyond the north-eastern See also:marches of Germany. The Hospitallers ruled an island too narrow to monopolize their energies, but occupying a position of vast commercial and strategic importance. Close to the Anatolian mainland, commanding the outlet of the See also:Archipelago, and lying in the See also:direct trade route between Europe and the East, Rhodes had become the chief distributing point in the lively commerce which, in spite of papal thunders, Christian traders maintained with the See also:Mahommedan states; and in the new capital of the order representatives to every See also:language and See also:religion of the See also:Levant jostled, haggled and quarrelled .8 The Hospitallers were thus divided between their duty as sovereign, which was to See also:watch over.the interests of their subjects, and their duty as Christian warriors, which was to combat the Infidel. In view of the fact that the crusading spirit was everywhere declining, it is not surprising that their policy was henceforth directed less by religious than by political and commercial considerations. Not that they altogether neglected their duty as protectors of the Cross. Their galleys policed the narrow seas; their consuls in Egypt and Jerusalem watched over the interests of pilgrims; their hospitals were still maintained for the service of the sick and the destitute. But, side by side with this, secularization proceeded apace. In 1341 Pope Clement VI. wrote to the grand master denouncing the luxury of the order and the misuse of its funds; in 1355 Innocent VI. sent the celebrated Juan See also:Fernandez de See also:Heredia, castellan of Amposta and grand commander of Aragon, as his See also:legate to Rhodes, armed with a bull which threatened the order with dissolution if it did not reform itself and effect a settlement in See also:Turkey. In 1348, indeed, the Hospitallers, in alliance with Venice and Cyprus, had captured See also:Smyrna; but the chief outcome of this had been commercial See also:treaties with their See also:allies. Such treaties were, in fact, a matter of life and death; for the island was not self-supporting, and even towards the Infidel the attitude of the knights was necessarily influenced by the fact that their supplies of provisions were mainly drawn from the Mussulman mainland. By the 15th century their crusading spirit had grown so weak that they even attempted to negotiate a commercial treaty with the See also:Ottoman sultan; the project broke down on the refusal of the knights to accept the sultan's See also:suzerainty. The earlier history of the Hospitallers bristles with obscure questions on which modern scholarship (notably the labours of Delaville Le Roulx) has thrown new light. From 1355 onward, however, the case is different; the essential facts have been established by writers who were able to draw on a mass of well-ordered materials. Their history during the two centuries of the occupation of Rhodes, so far as its general See also:interest for Europe is concerned, is that of a long series of See also:naval attacks and See also:counter-attacks; its chief outcome, for which the European states owed a See also:debt of gratitude but ill acknowledged, the postponement for some two centuries of the See also:appearance of the Ottomans as a first-See also:rate naval power in the Mediterranean. The seaward advance of See also:Osman the Turk was arrested by their victories; in 1358 they successfully defended Smyrna; in 1365 under their grand master Raymond See also:Beranger (d. 1374), and in alliance with the king of Cyprus, they captured and burned Alexandria. The Ottoman peril, however, grew ever more imminent, and in 1395, under their grand master Philibert de Naillac, the Hospitallers 2 Philip IV. strenuously opposed the change for this reason. Prutz, Die geistlichen Ritterorden, pp 358 sqq. Compare the division of the general councils of See also:Basel and See also:Constance into ` nations." 8 See the regulations made, soon after the capture of the island, in the Capitula Rodi, a fragment of a See also:code, published by See also:Ewald in Neues Archie iv. pp. 265–269 shared in the disastrous defeat of See also:Nicopolis. The invasion followed of Timur the Tatar, invited to his aid by the Eastern emperor. Sultan Bayezid, the See also:victor of Nicopolis, was over-thrown; but Timur turned against the Christians and in 1402 captured Smyrna, putting the Hospitallers who defended it to the See also:sword. It was after this disaster that the knights built, on a narrow promontory jutting from the mainland opposite the island of Kos, the fortress of St See also:Peter the Liberator. The castle, which still stands, its name corrupted into Budrun (from Bedros, Peter), was long a place of refuge for Christians flying from See also:slavery.' Some years later the position of the order as a Mediterranean sea-power was strengthened by commercial treaties with Venice, Pisa, See also:Genoa, and even with Egypt (1423). The See also:zenith of its power was reached a few years later, when, under the grand master Jean Bonpar de Lastic, it twice defeated an Egyptian attack by sea (1440 and 1444). A new and more imminent peril, however, arose with the capture of See also:Constantinople by the See also:Turks in 1453, for Mahommed II. had announced his intention of making Rhodes his next See also:objective. The attack was delayed for twenty-seven years by the sultan's wars in south-eastern Europe; and meanwhile, in 1476, Pierre d'See also:Aubusson (q.v.), the second great hero of the order, had been elected grand master. Under his See also:inspiration, when in June 1480 the Turks, led by three renegades, attacked the island, the knights made so gallant a resistance that, in July, after repeated and decisive repulses, the Turks retreated. In 1503 Pierre d'Aubusson was succeeded by Aymar d'See also:Amboise, who directed a long series of naval battles. In 1521 the famous Philippe de Villiers de 1'Isle d'See also:Adam was elected grand master, just as the dreaded sultan See also:Suleiman the Magnificent directed his attack on Rhodes. In 1522 he besieged the island, reinforcements failed, the European powers sent no assistance, and in 1523 the knights capitulated, and withdrew with all the honours of war to See also:Candia (See also:Crete). The emperor Charles V., when the news was brought to him, exclaimed, " Nothing in the See also:world has been so well lost as Rhodes!" But he refused to assist the grand master in his plans for its recovery, and instead, five years later (1530), handed over to the Hospitallers the island of Malta and the fortress of Tripoli in See also:Africa. The Knights in Malta.—The settlement of the Hospitallers in Malta was contemporaneous with the See also:Reformation, which profoundly affected the order. The master and knights of the bailiwick of Brandenburg accepted the reformed religion, without, however, breaking off all connexion with the order (see below). In England, on the other hand, the refusal of the grand prior and knights to acknowledge the royal supremacy led to the See also:confiscation of their estates by Henry VIII., and, though not formally suppressed, the English "langue " practically ceased to exist.2 The knights of Malta, as they came to be known, none the less continued their vigorous warfare. Under Pierre du See also:Pont, who succeeded Villiers de l'Isle d'Adam in 1534, they took a conspicuous part in Charles V.'s attack on See also:Goletta and Tunis (1535). In 1550 they defeated the redoubtable See also:corsair Dragut, but in 1551 their position in Tripoli, always precarious, became untenable and they capitulated to the Turks under Dragut, concentrating their forces in Malta. In 1557 Jean Parisot de la Vallette (1494–1548) was elected grand master, and under his vigorous rule strenuous efforts were made to put the defences of Malta into a See also:fit state to resist the expected ' There is a reduction of a photograph of the castle in See also:Bedford and Holbeche's Order of the Hospital, p. 2o. The building materials were largely taken from the See also:Mausoleum of See also:Halicarnassus. 2 The great priory church at See also:Clerkenwell in London was almost wholly destroyed by the See also:Protector See also:Somerset, who used the materials for his palace in the Strand. Only the great gateway, spanning St John See also:Street, now survives above ground of the priory buildings. It is the headquarters of the revived English " langue." Sir John Rawson, prior of Kilmainham, the headquarters of the order in Ireland, accepted the royal supremacy and was created Lord Clontarf. In 1679 the duke of See also:Ormonde erected the present hospital on the site of the ancient priory. The preceptory of Torphichen, head-quarters of the order in Scotland, was surrendered in 1547 by the preceptor Sir James Sandilands of See also:Calder, who was created Lord Torphichen. As " Lord of St John " he had had See also:precedence of all the barons of Scotland, and this right—originally exercised as a spiritual peer—was retained by him and his successors. See also:Turkish attack. On the 18th of May 1565 the Ottoman See also:fleet, under Dragut, appeared before the city, and one of the most famous sieges in history began.3 It was ultimately raised on the 8th of September, on the appearance of a large relieving force despatched by the Spanish See also:viceroy of See also:Sicily, after Dragut and 25,000 of his followers had fallen. The memory of La Vallette, the hero of the siege, who died in 1568, is preserved in the city of See also:Valletta, which was built on the site of the struggle. In 1571 the knights shared in the victory of See also:Lepanto; but this crowning success was followed during the 17th century by a long period of depression, due to See also:internal dissensions and culminating during the Thirty Years' War, the position of the order being seriously affected by the terms of the peace of See also:Westphalia (1648). The order was also troubled by quarrels with the popes, who claimed to nominate its officials (a claim renounced by Innocent XII. in 1697), and by rivalry with the Mediterranean powers, especially Venice. In Malta itself there were four See also:rival claimants to independent jurisdiction: the grand master, the bishop of Malta, the grand inquisitor, whose office was instituted in 1572, and the Society of Jesus, introduced by Bishop Gargallo in 1592. The order, indeed, saw much fighting: e.g. the frequent expeditions undertaken during the grand-mastership of Alof de Vignacourt (16or–1622); the defence of Candiawhich fell after a twenty years' siege in 1669—under See also:Nicholas Cottoner, grand master from 1665 to 168o; and, during the grand mastership of Gregorio Caraffa (168o–1690), a See also:campaign (1683) with John Sobieski, king of See also:Poland, against the Turks in Hungary, and the attack in alliance with Venice on the Morea in 1687, which involved the Hospitallers in the defeat at Negropont in 1689. The decline of the order was hastened by the practice of electing aged grand masters to ensure frequent vacancies; such were Luiz Mendez de Vasconcellos (1622–1623) and See also:Antonio da Paula (1623–1636) and Giovanni See also:Paolo See also:Lascaris (de Castellar), in 1636, who died twenty-one years later at the See also:age of ninety-seven. The character of the order at this date became more exclusively aristocratic, and its wealth, partly acquired by commerce, partly derived from the contributions of the commanderies scattered throughout Europe, was enormous. The wonderful fortifications, planned by French architects and improved by every grand master in turn, the gorgeous churches, chapels and auberges, the great library founded in r65o, were the outward and visible sign of the growth of a corresponding luxury in the private life of the order. Nevertheless, under Raymond Perellos de Roccaful (1697–1720) and Antonio Manoel de Vilhena (1722–1736), the knights restored their prestige in the Mediterranean by victories over the Turks. In 1741 Emmanuele See also:Pinto de See also:Fonseca, a See also:man of strong character, became grand master. He expelled the See also:Jesuits, resisted papal encroachments on his authority and, refusing to summon the general chapter, ruled as a See also:despot. Emanuel, prince de See also:Rohan, who was elected grand master in succession to See also:Francesco See also:Jimenes de Texada in 1775, made serious efforts to revive the old spirit of the order. Under him, for the first time since 1603, a general chapter was convoked; the orders of St Anthony and St Lazarus were incorporated, and the statutes were revised and codified (1782). In 1782 also Rohan, with the approval of George III. established the new Anglo-Bavarian " langue." The last great expedition of the Maltese galleys was worthy of the noblest traditions of the order; they were sent to carry supplies for the sufferers from the great See also:earthquake in Sicily. They had long ceased to be effective fighting ships, and survived mainly as gorgeous state See also:barges in which the knights sailed on ceremonial See also:pleasure trips. The French Revolution was fatal to the order. Rohan made no secret of his sympathy with the losing cause in France, and Malta became a refuge-place for the emigres. In 1792 the vast possessions of the order in France were confiscated, and six years later the See also:Directory resolved on the forcible seizure of Malta 3In See also:Protestant England public prayers were offered for the success of the knights. Yet a few years later Queen Elizabeth was seeking the alliance of the sultan against Spain, on the ground of their common religion as against " the idolators "! itself. Rohan had died in 1797, and his feeble successor, Baron See also: The Italian langue embraces the grand priories of Rome, Lombardy and Venice; and Sicily; the German langue consists of (I) the grand priory of Bohemia, (2) the association of the honorary knights (Ehrenritter) in See also:Silesia, (3) the association of Ehrenritter in Westphalia and the See also:Rhine country, (4) the association of English knights (not to be confused with the English order), (5) the knights received in gremio religionis, i.e. those not attached to any of the preceding divisions. At the head of the order is the grand master. Each priory has a certain number of bailiffs (grand commanders, commendatori), commanders, professed knights (i.e. those who have taken the vows), knights of justice (novices), honorary knights, knights of grace, donats and chaplains. Candidates for See also:knighthood have to prove sixteen quarterings of See also:nobility and, if under age, must be sons of a landowner of the province and of a mother born within its limits. If an See also:Austrian subject, the postulant must obtain the emperor's leave to join the order; the election is by the chapter, and subject to confirmation by the pope. Knights of justice take a yearly See also:oath to fulfil the duties laid on them by the order. After ten years they may take the full oath as professed knights. At any time before doing so, however, they are free to retire from the order and may receive the croix de devotion as honorary knights, their See also:sole See also:obligation being an See also:annual subscription to the order. The croix de devotion is also bestowed on ladies of sufficiently impeccable descent. The grand master also has the right, motu proprio, to bestow the cross on distinguished See also:people not of noble birth, who are known as knights of grace. The grand cross2 of the order is sometimes given, honoris cause, to sovereigns and others, who then See also:rank as honorary bailiffs. This is a See also:gold, white enamelled " Maltese " cross, surmounted by a See also:crown, which is worn suspended round the See also:neck by a black ribbon. Bailiffs, professed knights and chaplains wear in addition a white See also:linen cross sewn on to the left breast. The grand priory of Bohemia has made the nursing of the sick its speciality, and especially the organization of military hospitals. The hospice between See also:Bethlehem and Jerusalem is under the protection of the Austrian emperor. Protestant Orders.—In addition to the Sovereign Order of the Knights of Malta, there exist two Orders of St John of Jerusalem which derive their origin from the same source: the Prussian Johanniterorden and the English Order of St John of Jerusalem. Of these the Prussian order has the most interesting history. At the Reformation the master and knights of the bailiwick of Brandenburg adopted the new religion. They continued, however, like other Ritterstifter, to enjoy their corporate rights; they even continued to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the grand preceptor of the German langue, in so far as the confirmation of See also:official appointments was concerned, and to send their contributions to the common fund of 1 He was the only German in the See also:list of grand masters. 2 So called because the dignitaries wore a larger cross than the generality of the knights.the order. On the 3oth of October 181o, under stress of the miseries of the See also:Napoleonic occupation of Prussia, the order was secularized and its estates confiscated; in 1812 King Frederick William III. founded the chivalrous order of St John, to which the expropriated knights were admitted as honorary knights. In 1853 Frederick William IV. reversed this action, abolished the new chivalrous order and reconstituted the bailiwick of Brandenburg, on the ostensible ground that its maintenance had been guaranteed by the treaty of Westphalia (1648). The master (Herrenmeister) is elected by the chapter. All members of the order must be of noble birth and belong to the Evangelical Church. The cross worn is of white enamelled gold with four black eagles between the arms; a white linen cross is also sewn on the left breast of the red tunic which forms part of the See also:uniform. The order has founded, and supports, many hospitals, including a hospice at Jerusalem (see Herrlich, Die Ballei Brandenburg, 4th ed., See also:Berlin, 1904).
As already mentioned, the English langue, though deprived of its lands, was never formally suppressed. In 1826–1827 the commission instituted by the French knights in 1814, which was aiming at taking advantage of the Greek War of See also:Independence to reconquer Rhodes or to secure some other island in the Levant, suggested the restoration of the English langue, obviously with the See also:idea of securing the help of Great Britain for their project. Certain eminent English-men, e.g. Sir See also:Sydney See also: The See also:objects and constitution of the order are practically the same as those of its Prussian See also:equivalent. The sovereign is its supreme head and patron, the See also:heir to the See also:throne for the time being its grand prior. It is essentially aristocratic, though—for obvious reasons—See also:proof of sixteen quarterings of nobility is not exacted as a See also:condition of membership. The cross is the gold, white-enamelled Maltese cross, differenced by two lions and two unicorns placed between the arms. The order also gives medals to persons of all ranks " for service in the cause of humanity." Among other good works, it supports an ophthalmic hospital at Jerusalem. Unlike the Prussian order, the members need not be Protestants, though they must profess See also:Christianity.4 illustrissima See also:militia di S. Giov. Gierosolimitano was published in 3 vols. at Rome in 1676. This was followed by S. See also:Pauli's Codice diplomatico del.sacro militare ordine Geros. (2 vols., See also:Lucca, 1733–1737) and P. A. Paoli's Dell' origine ed istituto del sacra militar ordine, &c. (Rome, 1781). These are still useful See also:sources as containing references to, and extracts from, documents since lost. In 1883 J. Delaville Le Roulx published Les Archives de l'Ordre de Saint-Jean, an See also:analysis of the records preserved at Malta. This was followed in 1904 by his monumental Cartulaire general des Hospitaliers de Saint-Jean de Jerusalem (1100-1310), 4 vols. See also:folio. This gives (I) all documents anterior to I120, (2) all those emanating from the great dignitaries of the order, (3) all those emanating from popes, emperors, kings and great feudatories, (4) those which See also:fix the date of the foundation of particular commanderies, (5) those regulating the relations of the Hospitallers with the See also:lay and ecclesiastical authorities and with the other military orders, (6) the rules, statutes and customs of the order. Hitherto unpublished documents (from the archives of Malta and elsewhere) are published in full; those already published, and the place where they may be found, being indicated in proper sequence. Based on the Cartulaire is Le Roulx's Les ' See Bedford and Holbeche, Appendix D. 4 The medieval vows are, of course, not taken. Hospitaliers en Terre Sainte et en Chypre (Paris, 1904), an invaluable work in which many hitherto obscure problems have been solved. It contains a full list of published authorities. Of English works may be mentioned John See also:Taaffe's History of the Order of Malta (1852); J. M. See also:Kemble's See also:Historical introduction to The Knights Hospitallers in England (See also:Camden See also:Soc., London, 1857) ; W. See also:Porter, Hist. of the Knights of Malta (2 vols. 1858, new ed. 1883) ; Bedford and Holbeche, The Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem (1902), for the modern order. (W. A. P.)
ST JOHNS, the capital of Newfoundland, situated on the east coast of the island, in the peninsula of See also:Avalon, in 470 33' 541'N., and 52° 40' 18" W. It is the most easterly city of See also:America, only 1700 M. from See also:Queenstown in Ireland, and 2030 from See also:Liverpool. It stands on rising ground on the north side of a land-locked harbour, which opens suddenly in the lofty iron-bound coast. The entrance, known as The Narrows, guarded by See also:Signal See also: At the termination of the Narrows the harbour trends suddenly to the west, thus completely shutting out the ocean swell. Vessels of the largest See also:tonnage can enter at all periods of the tide. There is good See also:wharf See also:accommodation and a well-equipped dry See also:dock. St Johns practically monopolizes the commerce of the island (see NEWFOUNDLAND), ,Peing the centre of the See also:cod, seal and See also:whale fisheries. The chief industries are connected with the fitting out of the fishing vessels, or with the disposal and manufacture of their catch. Steamship lines run to Liverpool, New See also:York, Halifax (N.S.) and Saint Pierre. Nearly all the commerce of the island is sea-See also:borne, and well-equipped steamers connect St Johns with the numerous bays and outports. It is the eastern See also:terminus of the government railway across the island to Port-aux-See also:Basques, whence there is steamer connexion with the mainland at Sydney. The finest buildings in the city are the See also:Anglican and Roman See also:Catholic cathedrals. See also:Education is controlled by the various religious bodies; many of the See also:young men See also:complete their studies in Canada or Great Britain. St Johns is not an incorporated town. A municipal council was abolished after having largely increased the debt of the city, and it is now governed by commissioners appointed by the governor in council. St Johns was first settled by See also:Devonshire fishermen early in the 16th century. It was twice sacked by the French, and captured by them in the Seven Years' War (1762), but recaptured in the same year, since when it has remained in British possession. Both in the War of American Independence and in that of 1812 it was the headquarters of the British fleet, and at one time the western end of the harbour was filled up with American prizes. The old city, built entirely of wood, was twice destroyed by See also:fire (1816—1817 and 1846). Half of it was again swept away in 1892, but new and more substantial buildings have been erected. The population, chiefly of the Roman Catholic faith and of Irish descent, increases slowly. In 1901 the electoral district of St Johns contained 39,994 inhabitants, of whom 30,486 were within the limits of the city. ST JOHNS, a town and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and capital of St Johns county, 27 M. S.E. of Montreal by rail, on the river See also:Richelieu and at the head of the Chambly canal. Pop. (1901) 4030. A large export trade in lumber, See also:grain and farm produce is carried on, and its mills and factories produce See also:flour, silk, pottery, hats, &c. Three railways, the Grand See also:Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Central See also:Vermont, enter St Johns. On the opposite bank of the river is the flourishing town of St Jean d'Iberville (usually known simply as Iberville), connected with St Johns by several bridges. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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