ORNITHOLOGY ,1 properly the methodical study and consequent knowledge of birds with all that relates to them; but the difficulty of assigning a limit to the commencement of such study and knowledge gives the word a very vague meaning, and practically procures its application to much that does not enter the domain of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

One of his commentators, C. J. Sundevall—equally proficient in classical as in ornithological knowledge—was, in 1863, compelled to leave more than a See also:

• SCORE (O.E. scor, from sceran, to cut, notch, cf. " shear ")

The twenty-third of these books is De Avibus, and therein a See also:

• GREAT

Hence his work, written in See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

Nevertheless the book was eagerly sought, and several editions of it appeared.4 Mention must be made of a medical treatise by Caspar Schwenckfeld, published at See also:

• LIEGNITZ

Together they studied, together they travelled and together they collected. Willughby, the younger of the two, and at first the other's See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

Yet as systematists their authors were no worse than See also:

• KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810–1876)

Immediately on the completion of his Regne Animale in 1756, Brisson set about his Ornithologie, and it is only in the last two volumes of the latter that any reference is made to the tenth edition of the Systema Naturae, in which the See also:

• BINOMIAL (from the Lat. bi-, bis, twice, and nomen, a name or term)

This enormous work was subsidized by the French See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

2 Between 1767 and 1776 there appeared at See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Not to recur again to his labours, it may be said here that between 1821 and 1828 he published at See also:

• WINCHESTER
• WINCHESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

In like manner in 1786, Scopoli—already the author of a little book published at Leipzig in 1769 under the title of Annus I. Historiconaturalis, in which are described many birds, mostly from his e A German translation by Bechstein subsequently appeared. 7 He also prepared for publication a second edition of his Index Ornithologicus, but this was never printed, and the See also:

• MANUSCRIPT

own collection or the Imperial vivarium at Vienna—was at the pains to See also:

• PRINT

But these and many other contributions,4 made until nearly the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

454-468, 503-519).was in his fullest vigour, afforded not the least evidence that he had ever dissected a couple even of birds° with the See also:

• OBJECT

Yet, in order to determine the difference of structure in their See also:

• ORGANS

In 1734 J. L. Frisch began the long series of works on the birds of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

A. See also:

• NAUMANN, GEORG AMADEUS CARL FRIEDRICH (1797-1873)

More appeared in the North, for in 1770 Amsterdam sent forth the beginning of Nozeman's Nederlandsche Vogelen, a fairly illustrated work in folio, but only completed by Houttuyn in 1829, and in Scandinavia most of all was done. In 1746 the great Linnaeus had produced a Fauna Svecica, of which a second edition appeared in 1761, and a third, revised by Retzius, in 'Soo. In 1764 Briinnich published at Copenhagen his Ornithologia borealis, a compendious sketch of the birds of all the countries then subject to the Danish See also:

• CROWN

The ornithology of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

In 1791 J. See also:

• HEYSHAM

The other work to the importance of which on ornithology in England allusion has been made is See also:

• BEWICK, THOMAS (1753-1828)

It is well known that the earlier editions of this work, especially if they be upon large See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

This is devoted to the very distinct and not nearly-allied groups of hornbills and of birds which for want of a better name we must call " Chatterers," and is illustrated, like those works of which a notice immediately follows, by coloured plates, done in what was then considered to be the highest style of See also:

• ART

Temminck, whose See also:

• FATHER

A Century of Birds from the See also:

• HIMALAYA

A Monograph of the Odontophorinae or Partridges of America (185o); The Birds of Asia, in seven volumes, the last completed by Mr See also:

• SHARPE, DANIEL (18o6-1856)

Turner—the latter (as his publications prove) a zoologist of much promise, who in 1851 died, a victim to his own zeal for investigation, of a See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

First of these in point of time as well as in importance is the Nouveau recueil des planches colorises d'oiseaux of Temminck and Langier, intended as a sequel to the Planches en- luminees of D'Aubenton before noticed, and like that work issued both in folio and quarto size. The first portion of this was published at Paris in 182o, and of its one hundred and two livraisons, which appeared with great irre- gularity (See also:

• IBIS

It is a tradition that, this work not being favourably regarded by the authorities of the Paris Museum, its draughtsman and author were refused closer access to the specimens required, and had to draw and describe them through the See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

The accompanying letter- press is in some places copious, and useful lists of the species of various genera are occasionally subjoined, adding to the definite value of the work, which, forming one volume, was completed in 1869. See also:

• ROWLEY, WILLIAM (c. 1585-c. 1642)

Temminck and See also:

• LANGTON, JOHN (d. 1337)
• LANGTON, S
• LANGTON, STEPHEN (d. 1228)
• LANGTON, WALTER (d. 1321)

Every plate is not beyond criticism, but his worst drawings show more knowledge of bird-life than do the best of his English or French contemporaries. A work of somewhat similar character, but one in which the letterpress is of greater value, is the Centurie zoologique of See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

Zoology, a pretentious compilation continued by Stephens. The last seven of its fourteen volumes include the Class Ayes, and the first part of them appeared in 1809, but, the original author dying in 1815, when only two volumes of birds were published, the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

Turin,307 ideas in this are said to have been taken from Illiger; but the two systems seem to be wholly distinct. Vieillot's was afterwards more fully expounded in the series of articles which he contributed between 1816 and 1819 to the second edition of the Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle containing much valuable information. The views of neither of these systematizers pleased Temminck, who in 1817 replied rather sharply to Vieillot in some Observations Tem- sur la classification methodique des oiseaux, a pamphlet 'kick. published at Amsterdam, and prefixed to the second edition 'kick. of his Manuel d'ornithologie, which appeared in 182o, an Analyse du systeme general d'ornithologie. This proved a great success, and his arrangement, though by no means simple,' was not only adopted by many ornithologists of almost every country, but still has some adherents. The following year Ranzani of Bologna, in his Elementi di zoologia*—a very respectable compilation—came to treat of birds, and then followed to some extent the plan Ranzani. of De Blainville and Merrem (concerning which much more has to be said by and by), placing the Struthious birds in an Order by themselves.' In 1827 Wagler brought out the first part Wagger. of a Systema avium, in this form never completed, consisting of forty-nine detached monographs of as many genera, the species of which are most elaborately described. The arrangement he subsequently adopted for them and for other groups is to be found in his Natiirliches System der Amphibien (pp, 77-128), published in 183o, and is too fanciful to require any further attention. The several attempts at system-making by See also:

• KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB (1803-1873)

History, vi. p. 41o; vii. pp. 26 and 1S9), was followed by a second edition in 1841, in which nearly all the corrections of the reviewer were adopted, and in 1844 began the publication of The Genera of Birds, beautifully illustrated—first by Mitchell and afterwards by Mr Wolf—which will always keep Gray's name in remembrance. The enormous labour required for this work seems scarcely to have been appreciated, though it remains to this day one of the most useful books in an ornithologist's library. Yet it must be confessed that its author was hardly an ornithologist, but for the See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

Sc. Torino, See also:

• XXIII

It may be convenient here to See also:

• DEAL

Their enunciation must therefore be given in Swainson's own words, though it must be admitted that space cannot be found here for the diagrams, which it was alleged were necessary for the right understanding of the theory. This theory, as originally propounded by Macleay, was said by Swainson in 1835 (Geogr. and Classific. of Animals, p. 202) to have consisted of the following propositions:1 " 1. That the series of natural animals is continuous, forming, as it were, a circle; so that, upon commencing at any one given point, and thence tracing all the modifications of structure, we shall be imperceptibly led, after passing through numerous forms, again to the point from which we started. " 2. That no groups are natural which do not exhibit, or show an evident tendency to exhibit, such a circular series. " 3. That the See also:

• PRIMARY

224, 225), the foregoing propositions take the following form: " I. That every natural series of beings in its progress from a given point, either actually returns, or evinces a tendency to return, again to that point, thereby forming a circle. " II. The primary circular divisions of every group are three actually, or five apparently. " III. The contents of such a circular group are symbolically (or analogically) represented by the contents of all other circles in the animal kingdom. IV. That these primary divisions of every group are characterized by definite peculiarities of form, structure and See also:

• ECONOMY

Another singular fact is that they often seemed to be totally unaware of the tendency if not the meaning of some of their own expressions: thus Macleay could write, and doubtless in perfect good faith (Trans. Linn. Society, xvi. p. 9, note), " Naturalists have nothing to do with mysticism, and but little with a priori reasoning." Yet his followers, if not he himself, were ever making use of language in the highest degree metaphorical, and were always explaining facts in accordance with preconceived opinions. See also:

• FLEMING, PAUL (1609-1640)
• FLEMING, RICHARD (d. 1431)
• FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD (1827- )
• FLEMING, SIR THOMAS (1S44-1613)

Nat. History, See also:

• SER

The purely artificial character of the System of Linnaeus and his successors had been perceived, and men were at a loss to find a substitute for it. The new See also:

• DOCTRINE

Sharpe in 1876. A considerable number of valuable papers on the ornithology of the country by Sir W. L. Buller, Drs See also:

• HECTOR

W. Lewin's Natural History of the Birds of New South Wales (4to, 1822), which reached a third edition in 1838. Gould's great Birds of Australia has been already named, and he subsequently reproduced with some additions the text of that work under the title of Handbook to the Birds of Australia (2 vols. 8vo, 1865). In 1866 Mr Diggles commenced a similar publication, The Ornithology of Australia, but the coloured plates, though fairly drawn, are not comparable to those of his predecessor. This is still incomplete, though the parts that have appeared have been collected to form two volumes and issued with title-pages. Some notices of Australian birds by Mr See also:

• RAMSAY, ALLAN (1686-1758)
• RAMSAY, ALLAN (1713-1784)
• RAMSAY, ANDREW MICHAEL (1686-1743)
• RAMSAY, DAVID (1749—1815)
• RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM (1852– )
• RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL (185r– )

2 This is a See also:

• POSTHUMOUS

C. J. Andersson's Notes on the Birds of Damara Laitd (8vo, 1872), edited by J. H. See also:

• GURNEY
• GURNEY, EDMUND (1847—1888)

H. See also:

• GOSSE, EDMUND (1849– )
• GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY (1810–r888)

11 (1878); Robert Ridgway, Manual of North American Birds (Philadelphia, 1887) ; See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

No. 50 (Washington, 1901 sqq.). Among See also:

• CON

The works of Audubon, and the Fauna Bor eali-A mericana of Richard-son and Swainson have already been noticed, but they need naming here, as also do See also:

• NUTTALL, THOMAS (1786-1859)

A list of its narks. birds, with some notes, See also:

• BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

For want of space it must here suffice simply to name some of the ornithologists who have elaborated, to an extent elsewhere unknown, the science as regards their own country: Altum, Baldamus, Bechstein, Blasius (father and two sons), Bolle, Borggreve, whose Vogel-Fauna von Norddeutschland (8vo, 1869) contains what is practically a bibliographical index to the subject, Brehm (father and sons), Von Droste, Gatke, Gloger, Hintz, Alexander and Eugen von See also:

• HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV (1795-1874)

Saunders, the latter of whom there records (1871, p. 55) the few works on ornithology by Spanish authors,' and in the Bulletin de la Societe Zoologique de France (i. p. 315; ii. pp. , 1, 89, 185) has given a list of the Spanish birds known to him. Returning northwards, we have of the birds of the whole of France nothing of real importance more recent than the volume France. Oiseaux in Vieillot's Faune francaise (8vo, 1822–1829) ; but there is a great number of See also:

• LOCAL

B. Meyer, Nathusius, Nehrkorn, Reichenbach, Reichenow and Schalow among others. 3 A useful ornithological bibliography of the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

8vo), a work fully intended to take the place of 'I'emminck's; but of which Bonaparte, in a See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

Dresser's Supplement to the Birds of Europe (1896). H. See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

Rene Paquet, under the See also:

• PSEUDONYM (Gr. >l ev&,vuµos, having a false name, ¢Evirls, false and ovoµa, name)

De Vogels See also:

• VAN

In 1836 appeared Eyton's History of the rarer British Birds, intended as a sequel to Bewick's well-known volumes, to which no important additions had been made since the issue of 1821. The year 1837 saw the beginning of two remarkable works by Macgillivray and See also:

• YARRELL, WILLIAM (1784–1856)

By whatever term we choose to call it—Classification, Arrangement, Systematizing or Taxonomy—that inquiry which has for its object the discovery of the natural groups into which birds fall, and the mutual relations of those groups, has always been one of the deepest interest. It is now for us to trace the rise of the present more advanced school of ornithologists, whose labours yet give signs of far greater promise. It would probably be unsafe to place its origin further back than a few scattered hints contained in the " Pterographische Nitzsch. Fragmente " of Christian See also:

• LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816—1895)
• LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865)

In 1810 appeared at See also:

• HEIDELBERG

Without pledging ourselves to the See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

C. nocturnae—Caprimulgus; 13. C. diurnae Hirundo. b. Oscines: a. O. conirostres Loxia, Fringilla, Emberiza, Tangara; /3. O. tenuirostres—Alauda, Motacilla, Muscicapa, Todus, Lanius, Ampelis, Turdus, Paradisea, Buphaga, Sturnus, Oriolus, Gracula, Coracias. See also:

• CORVUS, MARCUS VALERIUS (c. 370–270 B.C.)

Brevilingues.—a. Upupa; b. Ispidae. F. Levirostres.—a. Ramphastus, Scythrops?; b. Psittacus. G. Coccyges.—Cuculus, See also:

• TROGON

See also:

• COLUMBA, SAINT (Irish, Colum)

3. 20 B. Platyrhynchi. Pelicanus, Phaeton, Plotus. C. Aptenodytes. D. Urinatrices: a. Cepphi—Alca, Colymbi pedibus palmatis; b. Prodiceps, Colymbi pedibus lobatis. E. Stenorhynchi.

Procellaria, Diomedea, Larus, Sterna, Rhynchops. 4. Aves palustres. A. Rusticolae: a. Phalarides—Rallus, Fulica, Parra; b. Limosugae—See also:

• NUMENIUS

C. See also:

• OTIS, HARRISON GRAY (1765-1848)
• OTIS, JAMES (1725–1783)

185-215), though an abstract forming part of a Prodrome d'une nouvelle distribution du regne animal appeared earlier (op. cit. lxxxiii. 252, 253, 258, 259; and Bull. See also:

• SOC

According to the testimony of L'Herminier (for whom see later) he divided the " Passereaux" into two sections, the " faux" and the " vrais "; but, while the latter were very correctly defined, the former were most arbitrarily separated from the " Grimpeurs." He also split his Grallatores and Natatores (practically identical with the Grallae and Anseres of Linnaeus) each into four sections; but he failed to see—as on his own principles he ought to have seen—that each of these sections was at least equivalent to almost any one of his other " Ordres." He had, however, the courage to act up to his own professions in collocating the rollers (Coracias) with the See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

23-52), a brief description from Nitzsch's See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

20 and these descriptions being almost without exception so drawn up as to be comparative are accordingly of great utility to the student of classification, though they have been so greatly neglected. Upon these descriptions he was still engaged till death, in 1837, put an end to his labours, when his place as Naumann's assistant for the remainder of the work was taken by See also:

• RUDOLPH
• RUDOLPH (d. 1o8o)
• RUDOLPH, or RAOUL

2 Cuvier's first observations on the subject seem to have appeared in the Magazin encyclopedique for 1795 iii• pp. 330, 358). 3 This fact in the ostrich appears to have been known already to Geoff See also:

• ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790)

" Tinamous " — Tinamus, Latham. 22. " Foulques ou Poules d'eau " —Fulica, Linn. 23. " Grues "—Grus, Pallas. 24. " Herodions "—Herodii, Illiger. 25. No name given, but said to include " les ibis et les spatules." 26. " Gralles ou Echassiers "—Grallae. 27. " Mouettes "—Larus, Linn.

28. " Petrels "—Procellaria,Linn. 29. " Pelicans "—Pelecanus,Linn. 30. " Canards "—Anas, Linn. 31. "Grebes" — Podiceps, Latham. 32. " Plongeons " — Colymbus, Latham. " Pingouins "—A See also:

• ICA (YCA, or ECCA)

The preceding list is given to show the very marked agreement of L'Herminier's results compared with those obtained fifty years later by another investigator, who approached the subject from an entirely different, though still osteological, basis. Many of the excellencies of L'Ilerminier's method could not be pointed out without too great a See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

1. " Accipitres " — Accipitres, Linn. 2. " Serpentaires "— Gypogeranus, Illiger. 3. " Chouettes "—Strix, Linn. 4. "Touracos"—Opaetus, Vieillot. 5. " Perroquets " — Psittacus, Linn. 6. " Colibris "—Trochilus, Linn.

7. " Martinets "—Cypselus, Illiger. 8. " Engoulevents " — Caprimulgus, Linn. 9. " Coucous "—Cuculus, Linn. Io. "Couroucous"—Trogon,Linn. I I. " Rolliers "—Galgulus, Bris- son. 12. " Guepiers "—Merops, Linn.

13. "Martins-Pecheurs"—Alcedo, Linn. 14. " Calaos "—Buceros, Linn. 15. " Toucans " — Ramphastos, Linn. 16. " Pies "—Picus, Linn. 17. " Epopsides " — Epopsides, Vieillot. 33. 34.

find favour with his scientific superiors, and for the time things remained as though his investigations had never been carried on. Two years later Nitzsch, who was indefatigable in his endeavour to discover the natural families of birds and had been pursuing Nitzsch's a series of researches into their vascular system, grouping published the result, at See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Passerinae [L'H. 18]; 3. Macrochires [L'H. 6, 7]; 4. Cuculinae [L'H. 8, 9, 10 (qu. 11, 12?)]; 5. Picinae [L'H. 15, 16]; 6. Psiitacinae [L'H. 51; 7. Lipoglossae [L'H.

13, 14, 17]; 8. Amphibolae [L'H. 4]. B. Aves Carinatae terrestres. i. Columbinae [L'H. 19]; 2. Gallinaceae [L'H. 20]. C. Aves Carinatae aquaticae.

Grallae. 1. Alectorides (=Dicholophus+Otis) [L'H. 2 partim, 26 partim]; 2. Gruinae [L'H. 23]; 3. Fulicariae [L'H. 22]; 4. Herodiae [L'H. 24 partim]; 5. Pelargi [L'H. 24 partim, 25]; 6.

Odontoglossi (=Phoenicopterus) [L'H. 26 partim]; 7. Limicolae [L'H. 26 paene omnes]. Palmatae. 8. Longipennes [L'H. 27]; 9. Nasutae [L'H. 28]; ro. Unguirostres [L'H. 30]; ii.

Steganopodes [L'H. 29]; 12. Pygopodes [L'H. 31, 32, 33, 341. II. AvES RATITAE [L'H. " Oiseaux anomaux "]. To enable the reader to compare the several groups of Nitzsch with the families of L'Herminier, the See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

That in which there is but a single carotid artery, springing from both right and left See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

So far as his See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

The fowl possesses all five ossifications at birth, and for a long while the middle piece forming the keel is by far the largest. They all grow slowly, and it is not until the animal is about six months old that they are united into one See also:

• FIRM

In the Introduction to this book (p. xxxviii., note) he expressed his regret at not being able to use as fully as he could wish the excellent researches of Nitzsch which were then appearing (as has been above said) in the successive parts of Naumann's great work. Notwithstandirig this, to Gloger seems to belong the credit of being the first author to avail himself in a book intended for practical ornithologists of the new light that had already been See also:

• SHED

He prefixed an " Idea Systematis " to his " Expositio "; and the former, which appears to represent his real opinion, differs in arrangement very considerably from the latter. Like Gloger, Sundevall in his ideal system separated the true passerines from all other birds, calling them Volucres; but he took a step further, for he assigned to them the highest rank, wherein nearly every recent authority agrees with him; out of them, however, he See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

565-574), and is very See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

As regards the ducks, L'Herminier agreed with Cuvier that there are commonly only two centres of ossification—the side-pieces of the middle series; but as these grow to meet one another a distinct median " noyau," also of the same series, sometimes appears, which soon forms a connexion with each of them. In the ostrich and its allies no trace of this median centre of ossification ever occurs; but with these exceptions its existence is invariable in all other birds. Here the matter must be left; but it is undoubtedly a subject which demands further investigation, and naturally any future investigator of it should consult the abstract of L'Herminier's memoir and the criticisms upon it of the younger Geoff roy. Hitherto our attention has been given wholly to Germany and France, for the chief ornithologists of Britain were occupying themselves at this time in a very useless way—not but that there were several distinguished men who were Maogitif- vray. paying due heed at this time to the internal structure of birds, and some excellent descriptive See also:

• MEMOIRS

52). Fuller knowledge has shown that Macgillivray was ill-advised in laying stress on the systematic value of adaptive characters, but his contributions to anatomy were valuable, and later investigators, in particular H. Gadow and P. See also:

• CHALMERS, ALEXANDER (1759-1834)
• CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825)
• CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL (1836-1878)
• CHALMERS, JAMES (1841-1901)
• CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847)

256-268, 314-319, 351-361, 420-426, 589-601; iii. pp. 76-84). It was limited, however, to what he called Insessores, being the group upon which that name had been conferred by Vigors (Trans. Linn. Society, xiv. p. 405) in 1823, with the addition, however, of his Raptores, and it will be unnecessary to enter into particulars concerning it, though it is as equally remarkable for the insight shown by the author into the structure of birds as for the philosophical breadth of his view, which comprehends almost every kind of character that had been at that time brought forward. It is plain that Blyth saw, and perhaps he was the first to see it, that geographical distribution was not unimportant in suggesting the affinities and differences of natural groups (pp. 258, 259); and, undeterred by the precepts and practice of the hitherto dominant English school of Ornithologists, he declared that " anatomy, when aided by every character which the manner of See also:

• PROPAGATION

Considering the extent of their materials, which was limited to the bodies of such animals as they could obtain from dealers and the several menageries that then existed in or near London, the progress made in what has since proved to be the right direction is very wonderful. It is obvious that both these investigators had the genius for recognizing and interpreting the value of characters; but their labours do not seem to have met with much encouragement; and a general arrangement of the class laid by Blyth before the Zoological Society at this time ' does not appear in its publications. The scheme could hardly fail to be a crude performance—a fact which nobody would know better than its author; but it must have presented much that was objectionable to the opinions then generally prevalent. Its line to some extent may be partly made out—very clearly, for the matter of that, so far as its details have been published in the series of papers to which reference has been given—and some traces of its features are probably preserved in his Catalogue of the specimens of birds in the museum of the Asiatic Society of See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Keyserling and Blasius briefly pointed out in the Archiv fur Naturgeschichte (v. pp. 332-334) that, while all the other birds provided with perfect Keyserling song-muscles had the " planta " or See also:

• HIND

These the author reserved for a second treatise which he was destined never to complete. He kept on diligently collecting materials, and as he did so was con- strained to modify some of the statements he had published. He consequently See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

The " Passerinae," that is to say, the true Passeres, are split into eight families, not wholly with judgment, 2 but of their taxonomy more is to be said presently. Then a new order " Picariae " is instituted for the reception of the Macrochires, Cuculinae, Picinae Psittacinae and Amphibolae of his old arrangement, to which are added three 3 others—Caprimulginae, Todidae and Lipoglossae—the last consisting of the genera Buceros, Upupa and Alcedo. The association of Alcedo with the other two is no doubt a misplacement, but the alliance of Buceros to Upupa, already suggested by Gould and Blyth in 18384 (Mag. Nat. History, ser. 2, ii. pp. 422 and 589), though apparently unnatural, has been corroborated by many later systematisers; and taken as a whole the establishment of the Picariae was certainly a commendable proceeding. For the rest there is only one considerable change, and that forms the greatest blot on the whole scheme. Instead of recognizing, as before, a subclass in the Ratitae of Merrem, Nitzsch now reduced them to the rank of an order under the name " Platysternae," placing them between the " Gallinaceae " and " Grallae," though admitting that in their pterylosis they differ from all other birds, in ways that he is at great pains to describe, in each of the four genera examined by him—Struthio, Rhea, Dromaeus andCasuarius.5 It is significant that notwithstanding this he did not figure the pterylosis of any one of them, and the thought suggests itself that, though his editor assures us he had convinced himself that the group must be here shoved in (eingeschoben is the word used), the intrusion is rather due to the necessity which Nitzsch, in common with most men of his time (the Quinarians excepted), See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

389-408). It is probably to this essay that Professor Burmeister refers in the Pterylographie (p. 102, note; Eng. trans., p. 72, note) as forming the basis of the article " Passerinae " which he contributed to See also:

• ERSCH, JOHANN SAMUEL (1766–1828)

Yet it is said, on good authority, that Nitzsch had the See also:

• PATIENCE

Among the many species whose anatomy Macgillivray thus partly described from See also:

• AUTOPSY (Gr. aisros, self, and i4'tc, sight, investigation)

Macgillivray did not, however, assign to this essential difference any systematic value. Indeed he was so much pre-possessed in favour of a classification based on the structure of the digestive organs that he could not bring himself to consider vocal muscles to be of much taxonomic use, and it was reserved to Johannes Muller to point out that the contrary was the fact. This the great German comparative anato- ntiiller./obannes mist did in two communications to the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, one on the 26th June 1845 and the other on the 14th May 1846, which, having been first briefly published in the Academy's Monatsbericht, were afterwards printed in full, and illustrated by numerous figures, in .its Abhandlungen, though in this latter and complete form they did not appear in public until 1847. This very remarkable treatise forms the groundwork of almost all later or recent researches in the comparative anatomy and consequent arrangement of the Passeres, and, though it is certainly not free from imperfections, many of them, it must be said, arise from want of material, notwithstanding that its author had command of a much more abundant supply than was at the disposal of Nitzsch. Carrying on the work from the anatomical point at which he had left it, correcting his errors, and utilizing to the fullest extent the observations of Keyserling and Blasius, to which reference has already been made, Muller, though hampered by mistaken notions of which he seems to have been unable to rid himself, propounded a scheme for the classification of this group, the general truth of which has been admitted by all his successors, based, as the title of his treatise expressed, on the hitherto unknown different types of the vocal organs in the Passerines. He freely recognized the prior discoveries of, as he thought, Audubon, though really, as has since been ascertained, of Macgillivray; but Muller was able to perceive their systematic value, which Macgillivray did not, and taught others to know it. At the same time Muller showed himself, his power of discrimination notwithstanding, to fall behind Nitzsch in one very See also:

• CRUCIAL (from Lat. crux, a cross)

instance, Muller places in his third "tribe" the group which he called Ampelidae, meaning thereby the peculiar forms of South America that are now considered to be more properly named Cotingidae, and herein he was clearly right, while Nitzsch, who (misled by their supposed affinity to the genus Ampelis—peculiar to the Northern Hemisphere, and a purely Passerine form) had kept them among his P asserinae, was as clearly wrong. But again Muller made his third " tribe " Picarii also to contain the Tyrannidae, of which mention has just been made, though it is so obvious as now to be generally admitted that they have no very intimate relation-See also:

• SHIP

What remains to add is that the extraordinary celebrity of its author actually procured for the first portion of his researches notice in England (Ann. Nat. History, xvii. 499), though it must be confessed not then to any practical purpose; but more than thirty years after there appeared an English translation of his treatise by F. See also:

• JEFFREY, FRANCIS JEFFREY

360–369) contained the whole, and enabled naturalists to consider the merits of the author's project, which was to found a new classification of birds on the form of the anterior palatal bones, which he declared to be subjected more evidently than any other to certain fixed laws. These laws, as formulated by him, are that (1) there is a coincidence of form of the anterior palatal and of the cranium in birds of the same order; (2) there is a likeness between the anterior palatal bones in birds of the same order; (3) there are relations of likeness ' The title of the English translation is Johannes Muller on Certain Variations in the Vocal Organs of the Passeres that have hitherto escaped notice. It was published at Oxford in 1878. By some unaccountable accident, the date of the original communication to the Academy of Berlin is wrongly printed. It has been rightly given above.between the anterior palatal bones in groups of birds which are near to one another. These laws, he added, exist in regard to all parts that offer characters See also:

• FIT

Moreover, Dr Cornay's scheme was not given to the world with any of those adjuncts that not merely please the eye but are in many cases necessary, for, though on a subject which required for its proper comprehension a series of plates, it made even its final appearance unadorned by a single explanatory figure, and in a journal, respectable and well-known indeed, but one not of the highest scientific rank. The same year which saw the promulgation of the crude scheme just described, as well as the publication of the final researches of Muller, witnessed also another attempt at the classifica- tion Cabaals. of birds, much more limited indeed in scope, but, so far as it went, regarded by most ornithologists of the time as almost final in its operation. Under the vague title of " Ornithologische Notizen " Professor Cabanis of Berlin contributed to the Archiv fur Naturgeschichte (xiii. 1, pp. 186–256, 308–352) an essay in two parts, wherein, following the researches of Muller 2 on the See also:

• SYRINX (ovpryE)

3 This seems to have been made known by Professor Cabanis the preceding year to the Gesellschaft der Naturforschender Freunde (cf. Muller, Stimmorganen der Passerinen, p. 65). Of course the variation to which the number of primaries was subject had not escaped the observation of Nitzsch, but he had scarcely used it as a classificatory character. perching birds, that is to say, which are neither birds of prey nor pigeons—proposed by Professor Cabanis, was into four " Orders," as follows: 1. Oscines, equal to Miiller's group of the same name; 2. Clamatores, being a majority of that division of the Picariae of Nitzsch, so called by Andreas Wagner, in 1841,1 which have their feet normally constructed; 3. Strisores, a group now separated from the Clamatores of Wagner, and containing those forms which have their feet abnormally constructed ; and 4. Scansores, being the Grimpeurs of Cuvier, the Zygodactyli of several other systematists. The first of these four " Orders " had been already indefeasibly established as one perfectly natural, but respecting its details more must presently be said. The remaining three are now seen to be obviously artificial associations, and the second of them, Clamatores, in particular, containing a very heterogeneous assemblage of forms; but it must be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

So long ago as 1831, Prince C. L. Bonaparte, in his Saggio di una distribuzione metodica degli Animali Vertebrati, published at Rome, and in 1837 communicated to the Linnean Society of London, ' A new Systematic Arrangement of Vertebrated Animals," which was subsequently printed in that Society's Trans-actions (xviii. pp. 247-304), though before it appeared there was issued at Bologna, under the title of Synopsis Vertebratorum Systematic, a Latin translation of it. Herein he divided the class Aves into two subclasses, to which he applied the names of Insessores and Grallatores (hitherto used by their inventors Vigors and Illiger in a different sense), in the latter work relying chiefly for this division on characters which had not before been used by any systematist, namely that in the former group monogamy generally prevailed and the helpless nestlings were fed by their parents, while the latter group were mostly polygamous, and the chicks at birth were active and capable of feeding themselves. This method, which in process of time was dignified by the title of a Physiological Arrangement, was insisted upon with more or less pertinacity by the author throughout a long series of publications, some of them separate books, some of them contributed to the memoirs issued by many scientific bodies of various European countries, ceasing only at his death, which in July 1857 found him occupied upon a Conspectus Generum Avium, that in consequence remains unfinished. In the course of this series, however, he saw fit to alter the name of his two subclasses, since those which he at first adopted were open to a variety of meanings, and in a communication to the French Academy of Sciences in 1853 (Comptes rendus, See also:

• XXXVII

Journal, xli. pp. 50-71), was found to be established on a single character of the feet only; though he was careful to point out, immediately after formulating the definition of his subclasses Constrictipedes and Inconstrictipedes, that the former " make, in general, compact and well-built nests, wherein they bring up their very weak, See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

Yet the idea of a " physiological " arrangement on the same kind of principle found another follower, or, as he thought, inventor, in Edward Newman, who in 185o communicated Newman. to the Zoological Society of London a plan published in its Proceedings for that year (pp. 46-48), and reprinted also in his own journal The Zoologist (pp. 2780-2782), based on exactly the same considerations, dividing birds into two groups, " Hesthogenous "—a word so vicious in formation as to be incapable of See also:

• AMENDMENT (through the O. Fr. amender, to correct, from Lat. mendum, a fault)

Among his chief systematic determinations we may mention that he refers the tinamous to the rails, because apparently of their deep " notches," but otherwise takes a view of that group more correct according to modern notions than did most of his contemporaries. The bustards he would place with the " Limicoles," as also Dromas and Chionis, the sheath-bill (q.v.). See also:

• PHAETHON (Gr. gSaEBwv, shining, radiant)

Yet this distinguished zoologist selects the sternum as furnishing the key to his primary groups or " Orders " of the class, adopting, as Merrem had done long before, the same two divisions Carinatae and Ratitae, naming, however, the former Tropidosternii and the latter Homalosternii.3 Some unkind See also:

• FATE

To aid ornithologists in their studies in this respect, T. C. Eyton, who for many years had been forming a collection of birds' skeletons, began the publication of a series of plates representing them. The first part of this work, Osteologia Avium, appeared early in 1859, and a volume was completed in 1867. A Supplement was issued in 1869, and a Second Supplement, in three parts, between 1873 and 1875. The whole work contains a great number of figures of birds' skeletons and detached bones; but they are not so drawn as to be of much practical use, and the accompanying letterpress is too brief to be satisfactory. That the eggs laid by birds should offer to some extent characters of utility to systematists is only to be expected, when it is considered that those from the same nest generally bear an extraordinary family likeness to one another, and also that in certain groups the essential peculiarities of the egg-shell are constantly and distinctively characteristic. Thus no one who has ever examined the egg of a duck or of a See also:

• TINAMOU

Its basis is the classification of Cuvier, the modifications' of which by Des Murs will seldom commend themselves to systematists whose opinion is generally deemed worth having. Few, if any, of the faults of that classification are removed, and the improvements suggested, if not established by his successors, those especially of other countries than France, are ignored, or, as is the case with some of those of L'Herminier, are only cited to be set aside. Oologists have no reason to be thankful to Des Murs, notwithstanding his zeal in behalf of their study. It is perfectly true that in several or even in many instances he acknowledges and deplores the poverty of his information, but this does not excuse him for making assertions (and such assertions are not unfrequent) based on evidence that is either wholly untrustworthy or needs further inquiry before it can be accepted (Ibis, 186o, pp. 331-335). This being the case, it would seem useless to take up further space by analysing the several proposed modifications of Cuvier's arrangement. The great merit of the work is that the author shows the necessity of taking oology into account when investigating the classification of birds; but it also proves that in so doing the See also:

• PARAMOUNT (Anglo-Fr. paramont, up above, par el mont, up or on top of the mountain)

T Tare to serve as the See also:

• BUILDING

It had up to this time been little more than the shuffling of See also:

• CARDS, PLAYING

But greater work was at hand. In June 186o W. K. Parker See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

History, series 3, ix. 261-267) an account of what he conceived to be a feathered reptile (assigning to it the name Griphosaurus), the remains of which had been found in the lithographic beds of Solenhofen; but he himself, through failing health, had been unable to see the fossil. In 1862 the slabs containing the remains were acquired by the British Museum, Owen. and towards the end of that year Sir R. Owen com- municated a detailed description of them to the Philosopkical Transactions (1863, pp. 33-47), proving their bird-like nature, and referring them to the genus See also:

• ARCHAEOPTERYX

Reinhardt (Overs. K. D. Vid. Selsk. Forhandlinger, 1861, pp. 135- 154; Ibis, 1862, pp. 158-195), and as it seems to the present writer not ineffectually. Professor Parker replied to his critic (Ibis, 1862, PP. 297-299)- 2 This was done shortly afterwards by Professor See also:

• HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834- )

American ornithologists. Otherwise the scheme would hardly need notice here. This paper is indeed little more than an English translation of one published by the author in the annual volume (Arsskrift) of the Scientific Society of See also:

• UPSALA, or UPPSALA

The upshot, however, admits of no uncertainty: the class Aves is held to be composed of three " Orders" — I. SAURURAE, Hackel; II. RATITAE, Merrem; and The Saururae have the metacarpals well developed and not ancylosed, and the caudal vertebrae are numerous and large, so that the caudal region of the spine is longer than the body. The furcula is complete and strong, the feet very passerine in appearance. The See also:

• SKULL

Tinamous (q.v.). The Schizognathae include a great many of the 1 forms belonging to the Linnaean Orders Gailinae, Grallae and Anseres. In them the vomer, however variable, always tapers to a point anteriorly, while behind it includes the basisphenoidal rostrum Cecomorphae. Gerano (orphae. Alectorjmorphac. Pteroclo- Pala fedea. mor l hae. between the palatals; but neither these nor the pterygoids are borne by its posterior divergent ends. The maxillo-palatals are usually elongated and lamellar, uniting with the palatals, and, bending backward along their inner edge, leave a cleft (whence the name given to the " Suborder ") between the vomer and themselves. In the Desmognathae, the vomer is either abortive or so small as to disappear from the skeleton. When it exists it is always slender, and tapers to a point anteriorly. The maxillo-palatals are See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

The Aegithognathae, the fourth and last of the " Suborders," is characterized by a form of palate in some respects intermediate between the two preceding. The vomer is broad, abruptly truncated in front, and deeply cleft behind, so as to embrace the rostrum of the sphenoid; the palatals have produced postero-external angles; the maxillo-palatals are slender at their origin, and extend obliquely inwards and forwards over the palatals, ending beneath the vomer in See also:

• EXPANDED

Peristero Chenomorphae. morphae. morphae. 1 Hetero- Amphimorphae. morphae. i Pelargomorphae. Psittaco- Coccygo- lEgitho- Dysporo- morphae morphae gnathae. morphae. Huxley regarded the above scheme as nearly representing the affinities of the various Carinate groups—the great difficulty being to determine the relations to the rest of the Coccygomorphae, Psitiacomorphae and Aegithognathae, which he indicated " only in the most doubtful and hypothetic fashion." Almost simultaneously with this he expounded more particularly before the Zoological Society, in whose Proceedings (1868, pp. 294–319) his results were soon after published, the groups of which he believed the Alectoromorphae to be composed and the relations to them of some outlying forms usually regarded as Gallinaceous, the Turnicidae and Pteroclidae, as well as the singular hoactzin, for all three of which he had to institute new groups—the last forming the sole representative of, his Heteromorphae. More than this, he entered upon their geographical distribution, the facts of which important subject are here, almost for the first time, since the attempt of Blyth already mentioned,¢ brought to bear practically on classification. Here we must mention the intimate connexion between classification and geographical distribution as revealed by the palaeontological researches of See also:

• ALPHONSE, COUNT OF TOULOUSE AND OF POITIERS (I220-1271)

Hence it became manifest that a very respectable classification can be found in which characters drawn from these bones See also:

• PLAY

In that Journal for May 1872 (ser. 3, lii. p. 36o) the remains of a large swimming bird (nearly 6 ft. in length, as afterwards appeared) having some affinity, it was thought, to the Colymbidae were described under the name of Hesperornis regalis, and a few months later (iv. p. 344) a second fossil bird from the same locality was indicated as Ichthyornis disparfrom the See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

On the other hand the Odontotormae, as exemplified in Ichthyornis, having the primitive biconcave vertebrae, yet possessed the highly specialized feature of teeth in distinct sockets. Hesperornis too, with its keelless sternum, had aborted wings but strong legs and feet adapted for swimming, while Ichthyornis had a keeled sternum and powerful wings, but diminutive legs and feet. These and other characters separate the two forms so widely as quite to justify the establishment of as many orders for their reception. Marsh states that he had fully satisfied himself that Archaeopteryx belonged to the Odontornithes, which he thought it advisable for the present to regard as a subclass, separated into three orders—Odontolcae, Odontotormae and Saururae—all well marked, but evidently not of equal rank, the last being clearly much more widely distinguished from the first two than they are from one another. But that these three See also:

• OLDEST

27-30). This Tentamen, containing his complete method of classifying birds in general, naturally received much attention, the more so perhaps, since,with its appendices, it was nearly the last labour of its respected author, whose industrious life came to an end in the course of the following year. From what has before been said of his works it may be gathered that, while professedly basing his systematic arrangement of the groups of birds on their external features, he had hitherto striven to make his schemes harmonize if possible with the dictates of internal structure as evinced by the science of anatomy, though he uniformly and persistently protested against the inside being better than the outside. In thus acting he proved himself a true follower of his great countryman Linnaeus; but, without disparagement of his efforts in this respect, it must be said that when internal and external characters appeared to be in conflict he gave, perhaps with unconscious See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

These Laminiplantares are composed of six cohorts as follows: Cohors 1. Cichlomorphae. Cohors 2. Conirostres. Cohors 3. Coliomorphae. Cohors 4. Certhiomorphae.—3 families: See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

The Scutelliplantares include a much smaller number of forms, and, with the exception of the first " See also:

• COHORT (Lat. cohors)

Psittaci. Cohors 2. Pici. Cohors 3. Coccyges. Cohors 4. Coenomorphae. Cohors 5. Ampligulares. Cohors 6. Longilingues or Mellisugae. Cohors 7.

Syndactylae. Cohors 8. Peristeroideae. The Dasypaedes of Sundevall are separated into six " orders "; but these will occupy us but a short while. The first of them, Accipitres, comprehending all the birds-of-prey, were separated into 4 " cohorts " in his original work, but these were reduced in his appendix to two—Nyctharpages or owls with 4 families divided into 2 series, and Hemerohar pages containing all the rest, and comprising 10 families (the last of which is the See also:

• SERIEMA, or CARIAMA

A. See also:

• FORBES
• FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875)
• FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900)
• FORBES, DAVID (1828--1876)
• FORBES, DUNCAN
• FORBES, EDWARD (1815—1854)
• FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809—1868)
• FORBES, SIR JOHN (1787—1861)

Furbringer supposes that birds must have begun with toothed forms of small or moderate size, with long tails and four See also:

• LIZARD (Lat. lacertal)

Sclater published in the Ibis a classification which was mainly a revision of the system of Huxley, modified by the investigations of Garrod and Forbes and by his own large acquaintance with museum specimens. Classis AvEs I. Subclassis SAURURAE Order. Suborder. Gens. Family. ARCHORNITHES Archaeopterygiformes . Archaeopteryges Archaeopterygidae. II. Subclassis ORNITHURAE STRUTHIORNITHES Struthioniformes Struthiones . . . . .

Struthionidae.