See also:

• AMERICAN

Of the former class were the resolutions about the procuring of military supplies, the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

In May 17 7 5 disappeared the Assembly of See also:

• GEORGIA

Hence it was that, though the arrival of a fresh See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

New England was no longer to be the See also:

• DIRECT

And this See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

News had just come that Howe had landed with a large force at Sandy Hook—as events proved, it was an admirably equipped army of 30,000 men, supported by a fleet. Under the impression of these stirring events Dickinson and his leading supporters ceased their opposition, and the Declaration, substantially in the form given to it by See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

The United States, as yet, had no See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

All that Congress could do to secure the redemption of its issues was to recommend to the states to provide the means therefor; but this they failed to do, or even to provide for the redemption of their own issues. The continental See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

The old institutions had disappeared and new ones could not be immediately See also:

• DEVELOPED

As was characteristic not only of this revolution, but of all others, the committee system underwent an enormous development. " The whole congress," wrote John Adams, " is taken up, almost, in different committees, from seven to ten in the See also:

• MORNING

65. For a time, and indeed during most of the struggle, the course of the See also:

• LAND

Already, too, the See also:

• PHYSICAL

But the failure of the plan was almost ensured from the outset by neglect on the part of British officials to instruct General Howe as to his part in its execution, while Burgoyne was forced to surrender near Sara-toga on the 17th of October. Meanwhile, Howe, who had long waited for instructions respecting the northern expedition, was finally informed that he might undertake the Pennsylvania campaign, but with the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

Since 1763 a strong sentiment at the French See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

On the 6th of February 1778 the treaties were signed, and in the following summer war between France and England began. The influence of France under the See also:

• FAMILY

It now became to a large extent a contest between the two navies, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

While the war and foreign relations were thus developing, the states were organizing their governments and Congress was beginning to consider articles of confederation state c.. between the states. In this way an effort was made satutions. to gather up and make permanent the positive results of the revolution. As under the chartered and royal governments of the colonial period the source of political authority had been the Crown, now by a necessary reaction this was sought in the people. This principle had been stated in the Declaration of Independence, and had been implied ,throughout the earlier controversy and in much of the See also:

• HISTORY

It was actively continued during 1776 and the early months of the following year, by which time all of the states had secured at least a temporary constitution. South Carolina and New Hampshire revised theirs before the close of the war. Massachusetts did not secure a constitution which suited her until 178o, but then her procedure corresponded in all particulars with what was to be later American practice in such matters. Of the constitutions of the revolutionary period the two most striking features were the bills of rights and the provisions which were made concerning the executives and their relations to the legislatures. The men of that See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

Freedom of the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

But the document was completed and submitted to the states in November 1777, when all were encouraged by the news of Burgoyne's surrender. The system for which provision was made in this document was a " confederacy," or " See also:

• FIRM

The predominance of the states was further ensured by the provision that no votes, except those for daily See also:

• ADJOURNMENT (through the French from the Late Lat. adjurnare, to put off until or summon for another day)

Other similar projects were started, all repeating in one form or another the political methods which were used when the seaboard colonies were first settled. The backwoodsmen who managed these enterprises were extreme individualists, believed in the propriety of resistance to governments, and were in full sympathy with the War of Independence. They desired to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

72. Within the Confederacy a fundamental line of cleavage was that between the large and small states. It was jealousy on the part of the latter, their fear lest they might Articles of be absorbed by their larger neighbours, which had Confederanecessitated the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

So far as the North American See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

It was very difficult to secure recruits or supplies. The pay of the troops had fallen so into arrears that some of them had already begun See also:

• MUTINY
• MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin, a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. emeute; the original is the Late Lat. mota, commotion, from movere, to move)

As the effect of this event was to drive Lord North from power in England, it proved to be the last important operation of the war in America. The king was compelled to give way. See also:

• ROCKINGHAM, CHARLES WATSON WENTWORTH, 2ND MARQUESS OF (173o-1782)

It was also agreed that creditors on either side should meet with no lawful impediment to the collection of their debts. Both France and Spain considered the claims of the Americans to be excessive, and were not inclined to yield to them. But the Americans negotiated directly with the British and the articles were signed without consultation with the French government. This course was offensive to See also:

• VERGENNES, CHARLES GRAVIER, COMTE DE (1717-1787)

When the disbandment was finally effected the officers found their certificates depreciated in value and the states indisposed to See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

By this process sympathizers with the War of-Independence gained and kept the ascendancy. British and monarchical influences were weakened, and in the end the permanence of republican institutions was ensured. But, as had been foreseen, society in this period of transition exhibited so many repulsive features as almost to cause the stoutest See also:

• HEARTS

The Archives of Maryland (27 vols., Baltimore) contain the proceedings of the council, the assembly and the provincial court, with the laws, for a part of the colonial period. The Records of the Virginia See also:

• COMPANY

See also:

• THORPE [or TnoRP], JOHN (/l. 1570-1618)
• THORPE, BENJAMIN (1782-1870)

See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

L. McMahon's A Historical View of the Government of See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

George See also:

• BANCROFT, GEORGE (1800—1891)
• BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE (1832– )
• BANCROFT, RICHARD (1544–161o)
• BANCROFT, SIR SQUIRE (1841– )

Edward See also:

• CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780–1842)

See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

(H. L. O.) F.—The Struggle for See also:

• NATIONAL

Virginia had made a first offer to cede her claims, but it was not accepted. A committee of Congress now made a report (1782) maintaining the validity of the rights which New York had transferred to Congress; and Territorial in the next year Virginia made an acceptable offer. cessions, Her See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

The provision, "After the year 1800 there shall be neither See also:

• SLAVERY

The Constitution, which was adopted almost immediately afterwards, provided merely (See also:

• ART

To pay this, and subsequent See also:

• ANNUAL

Great Britain, the in the treaty of peace, had recognized the indePen- St Statetes. dence of the individual states, naming them in order; and her government followed the same system in all its inter-course with its late colonies. Its restrictive system was maintained, and the states, vying with each other for commerce, could adopt no system of counteracting measures. Every possible burden was thus shifted to American commerce; and Congress could do nothing, for, though it asked for the power to regulate commerce for fifteen years, the states refused it. The decisions of the various state courts began to conflict, and there was no power to reconcile them or to prevent the consequences of the divergence. Several states, towards the end of this period, began to prepare or adopt systems of protection of domestic productions or manufactures, aimed at preventing competition by neighbouring states. The See also:

• TENNESSEE

85. Congress was evidently incompetent to See also:

• FRAME

(q.v.), and at Washington's house, See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Washington was chosen to preside, and the convention began the formation of a new Constitution, instead of proposing changes in the old one. Two parties were formed The vlrglala at once. The Virginia delegates offered a plan plan. (see RANDOLPH, EDMUND), proposing a Congress, of two houses, having power to legislate on national subjects, and to compel the states to fulfil their obligations. This is often spoken of as a " national " plan, but very improperly. It was a " large-state " plan, proposed by those states which had . or hoped for a large population. It meant to See also:

• BASE

89. The Connecticut delegates, from their first appearance in the convention, had favoured a compromise. They had been trained under the New England system, in which the assemblies were made up of two houses, one The promis See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

The See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

But it does not, as does the British system, choose its The Con- legislative body and leave unlimited powers to it. atltutlon. It makes its Constitution ' the permanent See also:

• MEDIUM

An See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

The states, however, have always asserted their power to punish for treason against them individually. It has never been fully maintained in practice; but the theory had its effect in the secession period. 95. The system of the United States is almost the only national system, in active and successful operation, as to which the exact location of the sovereignty is still a mooted question. The contention of the See also:

• CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL (1782-185o)

But the same idea is visible in every department, and it has carried the Constitution safely through a century which has radically altered every other civilized government. It has combined See also:

• ELASTICITY

Before the end of the year Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey had ratified; and Georgia, Connecticut and Massachusetts followed during the first two months of 1788. Thus far Federalists the only strong opposition had been in See also:

• MASSA

too. When the votes of the electors were counted before Congress, it was found that Washington had been unanimously Fall of the elected president, and that John Adams, See also:

• STANDING

In accordance with this feeling most of the Northern states were on the high road towards abolition of slavery. See also:

• VERMONT

Like most slave laws, the laws of the Southern states were harsh: rights were almost absolutely with-held from the slave, and punishments of the severest kind were legal; but the execution of the system was milder than its legal possibilities might See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

It is not easy for the modern American to realize the poverty and weakness of his country at the inauguration of the new system of government, however he may realize the simplicity of the daily life of its people. io5. Outside the cities communication was slow. One stage a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

The See also:

• COMPARATIVE

The centres of Western settlement, in Tennessee and Kentucky, had become more firmly established, and a new one, in Ohio, had just been begun. The whole western limits of See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

All the tendencies of political institutions in the United States had certainly been towards democracy; but it cannot be said that the leading men were hearty or unanimous Democracy in their agreement with this tendency. Not a few in the United of them were pronounced republicans even before states. 1775, but the mass of them had no great objections to a monarchical form of government until the war-spirit had converted them. The Declaration of Independence had been directed rather against the kingsthan against a king. Even after popular sovereignty had pronounced against a king, class spirit was for some time a fair substitute for See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

The question whether the Constitution was to have a democratic or an anti-democratic interpretation was to be settled in the next twelve years. I it. The states were a strong See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

The departments of state, of the treasury, of war, of justice, and of the post-office were rapidly and successfully organized; acts were passed for the regulation of See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

Newspaper proposals to See also:

• DIVIDE

The same feeling seems to have been at the bottom of his establishment of a national bank, his assumption of state debts, and most of the general scheme which his influence forced upon the Federalist party. (See HAMILTON, ALEXANDER; and FEDERALIST PARTY.) 114. In forming his cabinet Washington had paid attention to the opposing elements which had united for the temporary The First purpose of ratifying the Constitution. The national cabinet, element was represented by Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, and Henry See also:

• KNOX, HENRY (1750-1806)
• KNOX, JOHN (c. 1505–1572)
• KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853– )

For ten years the See also:

• SURFACE

Hamilton programme was dictated by selfish or class interest; and they added this to the See also:

• ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a causa, a suit or trial at law)

118. The British government had accredited no minister to the United States, and it refused to make any commercial treaty or to give up the forts in the western territory of the United States, through which its agents still exercised a commanding influence over the Indians. In the course of its war with France, the neutral American vessels, without the protection of a national navy, fared badly. A treaty negotiated in 1794 by /ar Chief-Justice John Jay (q.v.) settled these difficulties Treaty. for the following twelve years. But, as it engaged the United States against any intervention in the war on behalf of France, was silent on the subject of the right of search, and agreed to irksome limitations on the commercial privileges of the United States, the Republicans, who were opposed to the negotiation of any treaty at this time with Great Britain, made it very unpopular, and the bitter personal attacks on Washington grew out of it. In spite of occasional Republican successes, the Federalists retained a general control of national Election of affairs; they elected John Adams president in 1796, 1796. though Jefferson was chosen vice-president with him; and the national policy of the Federalists kept the country out of entangling alliances with any of the European belligerents. To the Republicans, and to the French republic, this last point of policy was only a practical intervention against France and against the rights of man. 119. At the end of Washington's administration the French See also:

• DIRECTORY

They refused; Mission. their letters home were published,' and the Federalists at last had the opportunity of See also:

• RIDING

The first (repealed in April 1802) raised the number of years necessary for See also:

• NATURALIZATION

123. The Republican objections might have been made in court, on the first trial. But the Republican leaders had strong doubts of the impartiality of the Federal judges, who were Federalists. They resolved to entrench the party in the state legislatures. The Virginia legislature in 1798 passed virglnta and a series of resolutions prepared by Madison, Kentucky and the Kentucky legislature in the same year Resolutions. passed a series prepared by Jefferson (see KENTUCKY: History). Neglected or rejected by the other states, they were passed again by their legislatures in 1799, and were for a long time a documentary basis of the Democratic party. The leading idea expressed in both was that the Constitution was a " compact " between the states, and that the powers (the states) which had made the compact had reserved the power to restrain the creature of the compact, the Federal government, whenever it undertook to assume powers not granted to it. Madison's idea seems to have been that the restraint was to be imposed by a second convention of the states. Jefferson's idea is more doubtful; if it meant that the restraint should be imposed by any state which should feel aggrieved, his scheme was merely Calhoun's idea of See also:

• NULLIFICATION

Out Effects of of Congress the execution of the objectionable laws the Laws. had taken the shape of political persecution. Men were arrested, tried and punished for writings which the people had been accustomed to consider within legitimate political methods. The Republican leaders made every trial as public as possible, and gained votes constantly, so that the Federalists began to be shy of the very powers which they had sought. Every new election was a storm-See also:

• SIGNAL

The result depended on the electoral vote of New York; and See also:

• AARON

Its two successors —the Whig and the second Republican party—have also been broad-constructionist parties, but they have admitted democracy as well; the Whig party adopted popular methods at least, and the Republican went further in the direction of individual rights, securing the emancipation of enslaved labour. 1 Adams received 65, Pinckney 64 and John Jay 1. 127. The disputed election of 1800 was decided in the new capital city of Washington, to which the government had just been removed, after having been for ten years at Philadel- The New phia. Its streets and parks existed only on paper. capital. The Capitol had been begun; the Executive See also:

• MANSION (through O. Fr. mansion, mod. maison, from Lat. mansio, dwelling-place, stage on a journey; manere, to remain)

128. About this time the term " the West " appears. It meant then the western part of New York, the new territory north of the Ohio, and Kentucky and Tennessee. In The west. settling land boundaries New York had transferred (1786) to Massachusetts, whose claims crossed her territory, the right to (but not jurisdiction over) a large tract of land in central New York, and to another large tract in the See also:

• ERIE

129. The number of post offices rose during these ten years from 75 to 903, the See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Eli Whitney (q.v.) invented the saw-gin, by which the cotton was dragged through parallel wires with openings too narrow to allow the seeds to pass; and one slave could now clean loon lb a day. The exports of cotton leaped from 189,000 lb in Federalist Schism. 1791 to 21,000,000 lb in 18oi, and doubled in three years more. The influence of this one invention, combined with the wonderful series of British inventions which had paved the way for it, can hardly be estimated in its commercial aspects. Its political influences were even wider, but more unhappy. The introduction of the commercial element into the slave system of the South robbed it at once of the patriarchal features which had made it tolerable; while it developed in slave-holders a new disposition to defend a system of slave labour as a " positive good." The abolition societies of the South began to dwindle as soon as the results of Whitney's invention began to be See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

H.—Democracy and Nationality, 1801–1829 133• When Jefferson took office in 18oi he succeeded to a task larger than he imagined. His party, ignoring the natural Democracy forces which tied the states together even against and their See also:

• WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891)

Within four years steamboats were at work on western waters; and thereafter the increase of steam navigation and that of population stimulated one another. The " centre of popu- lation " has been carefully ascertained by the census Centre of Populationauthorities for each decade, and it represents the . westward movement of population very closely. During this period it advanced from about the middle of the state of Maryland to its extreme western limit; that is, the centre of population was in 183o nearly at the place which had been the western limit of population in 1770. 135. Jefferson also laid the basis for a further acquisition in the future by sending an expedition under Meriwether See also:

• LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL
• LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK (180 1876)
• LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY (1775-1818)
• LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774-1809)
• LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL, BART

The long-continued control of New Orleans by Spain, and the persistent intrigues of the Spanish authorities, looking towards a separation of the whole western country from the United States, had been ended by the acquisition of Louisiana, and the full details concerning them will probably remain for ever hidden in the secret history of the early West. They had left behind a dangerous See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

Great Britain was now at war, from time to time, with almost every other nation of Europe. In time of peace European nations followed generally the old restrictive principle of allowing another nation, like the United States, Neutral Commerce. no commercial access to their colonies; but, when they were at war with Great Britain, whose navy controlled the ocean, they were very willing to allow the neutral American merchantmen to carry away their surplus colonial produce. Great Britain had insisted for fifty years that the neutral nation, in such cases, was really intervening in the war as an ally of her enemy; but she had so far modified her claim as to admit that " transhipment," or breaking bulk, in the United States was enough to qualify the commerce for recognition. The neutral nation thus gained a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

The United States, founded by immigration, was anxious to establish what Great Britain was not disposed to grant, the right of the subject to divest himself of allegiance by naturalization under a foreign jurisdiction. Four facts thus tended to break off friendly relations: (1) Great Britain's claim to allegiance over American naturalized subjects; (2) her claim to the belligerent right of search of Impress- neutral vessels; (3) her claim of right to impress for ment. her vessels of war her subjects who were seamen wherever found; and (4) the difficulty of distinguishing native-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Pinckney in the election of 1808, assumed in the presidency a burden which was not enviable. New England was in a ferment, and was suspected of designs to resist the restrictive system by force; and the administration did not face the future with confidence. 142. The Non-Intercourse Law was to be in force only " until the end of the next session of Congress " and was to be abandoned as to either belligerent which should abandon its attacks on neutral commerce, and maintained against the other. In 1810 the American government was led to believe that France had abandoned its system. Napoleon continued to enforce it in fact; but his official fiction served its purpose of limiting the non-intercourse for the future to Great Britain, and thus straining relations between that country and the United States still further. The elections of 1811—1812 resulted everywhere in the defeat of " submission men " and in the choice of new members who were determined to resort to war against Great Britain. Henry See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

143. The national democracy meant to attack Great Britain in Canada, partly to gratify its western See also:

• CONSTITUENCY (from " constituent," that which forms a necessary part of a thing; Lat. constituere, to create)

numerous, and such officers were worse than useless. The war department showed no great knowledge, and poverty put its little knowledge out of service. Futile attempts the political officers were weeded out at the end of the year 1813, and See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Captains who could command a vessel but for a short time, yielding her then to another officer who was to take his sea service in rotation, were all ambitious to make their mark during their term. " The art of handling and fighting the old See also:

• BROADSIDE

147. In April 1814 the first See also:

• ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one)

149. The See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

151. Protection was advocated again on national grounds, but not quite on those which had moved Hamilton. The additional receipts were now to be expended for fortifications Protection. and other national defences, and for national roads and canals, the latter to be considered solely as military measures, with an incidental benefit to the people. Business See also:

• DISTRESS

In 1818 this duty also was made 1816• specific (5o cents a cwt.). The ad valorem duties carried most of the manufacturers through the financial crisis of 1818-1819, but the iron duties were less satisfactory. In English manufacture the substitution of See also:

• COKE (a northern English word, possibly connected with " colk," core)
• COKE, SIR EDWARD (1552-1634)
• COKE, SIR JOHN (1563-1644)
• COKE, THOMAS (1747-1814)

The attention drawn to western New York by the war had filled that part of the state with a new population. The southern Indians had been completely overthrown by Andrew Jackson during the War of 1812, and forced to cede their lands. Admission The admission of the new states of Indiana (1816), of New Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), See also:

• ALABAMA

Protection was now to be for national benefit, not for the benefit of classes. Western farmers were to have manufacturing towns at their doors, as markets for the surplus which 1 In 1816 Monroe received 183 electoral votes and his opponent, Rufus King,34; in 1820 Monroe received 231 and his opponent, John Quincy Adams, 1. 2 For a generation the making of " internal improvements " by the Federal government was an issue of great political importance. In 1806 Congress made an See also:

• APPROPRIATION (from Lat. appropriare, to set aside)

Its literature and its art had amounted to little, for the American people were still engaged in the fiercest of warfare against natural difficulties, which absorbed all their energies. 156. In international relations the action of the government was strong, quiet and self-respecting. Its first weighty action took place in 1823. It had become pretty evident that the See also:

• HOLY