See also:

• FLORA

See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Northwards, in the See also:

• SASKATCHEWAN
• SASKATCHEWAN (Cree: " Rapid River ")

Above Yale, in the drier part of the See also:

• FRASER
• FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819– )
• FRASER, JAMES (1818-1885)
• FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783--1856)
• FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

The wildfowl are, particularly in the west, in great numbers; their breeding-grounds extending from Manitoba and the western prairies up to Hudson Bay, the barren lands and Arctic coasts. The several kinds of geese-including the Canada See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

(A. P. C.) See also:

• AREA

In 1905 these four districts were formed into the two provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and Keewatin was placed directly under the federal See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

Alberta and Saskatchewan, particularly the ranching districts, are chiefly peopled by English immigrants, though since 190o there has also been a large influx from the United States. British Columbia contains a mixed population, of which in the See also:

• MINING

Elsewhere, English is exclusively used, save by the newly-arrived foreigners. The male See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

Save among the Indians, active disbelief in See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Since x885 a tax has been imposed on all Chinese entering Canada, and in 1903 this was raised to £roo ($500). British Columbia endeavoured in 1905 to See also:

• LAY

The larger banks are chartered by the federal government; in the smaller towns a number of private banks remain, but their importance is small, owing to the great facilities given to the chartered banks by the branch system. In 1906 there were 34 chartered banks, of which the branches had grown from 619 in 1900 to 1565 in 1906, and the number since then has rapidly increased. The banks are required by law to furnish to the finance See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

Both the revenue and the See also:

• EXPENDITURE

The great See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

The exports of See also:

• LUMBER

Esquimalt, Halifax, See also:

• KINGSTON
• KINGSTON, ELIZABETH, DUCHESS OF (1720-1788)
• KINGSTON, WILLIAM HENRY GILES (1814-188o)

Practically all the cities' and large towns have electric tramways, and See also:

• ELECTRICITY

So great, however, is the desire to shorten the time and distance necessary for the transportation of grain from Lake Superior to Montreal that an increasing quantity is taken by water as far as the Lake See also:

• HURON
• HURON (a French term, from huge', bristled, early used as an expression of contempt, signifying "lout ")

See also:

• SUDBURY
• SUDBURY, SIMON OF (d. 1381)

Mining and timber lands are sold or leased at moderate rates. All crown lands controlled by the provinces must be paid for, save in certain districts of Ontario, where free grants are given, but the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

Indeed, no See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

Higher education was originally organized by the various religious bodies, each of which retains at least one university in more or less integral connexion with itself. New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba support provincial See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

(1848); the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

In this all able-bodied citizens between the ages of 18 and 6b are nominally enrolled, but the active militia consists of about 45,000 men of all ranks, in a varying state of efficiency. These cannot be compelled to serve outside the Dominion, though special See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

Of the total population (estimated in 1907 at 6,440,000) over 50% are directly engaged in practical agriculture. In addition large numbers are engaged in See also:

• INDUSTRIES

See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

In 1900 the wheat acreage in Ontario was 1,487,633, producing 28,418,907 bushels, an average yield of 19.10 bushels per acre. Over three-quarters of this production was of fall or winter wheat, the average yield of which in Ontario over a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

58.34 and at Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie river in lat. 61.52, more than Boo m. north of Winnipeg and about l000 m. north of the United States boundary. As a rule the See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

There is See also:

• ROOM

After the raising of the duty on barley under the See also:

• MCKINLEY, WILLIAM (1843—1901)

Vegetables are grown everywhere, and form a large part of the See also:

• DIET

Heavy Live See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

The breeding of cattle, adapted for the production of See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

All the leading British varieties are reared, the See also:

• SHROPSHIRE (SALOP)

Turkeys thrive well, grow to a fine See also:

• SIZE

The dairy factory system was introduced into Canada in 1864, and from that time the production and exportation of cheese See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

The total export of butter from Canada in 1906 was 34,031,525 lb, of the value of $7,075,539. According to a census of manufactures taken in 1906, the total value of factory cheese and butter made in Canada during that year was $32,402,265. There are large districts lying eastward of the Great Lakes and westward of the Rocky Mountains, where apples of fine quality can be grown; and there are other smaller Fruits. areas in which See also:

• PEARS

Collections of fruit grown in British Columbia have received premier honours at the competitive exhibitions of the Royal Horticultural Society in See also:

• LONDON

The policy of slaughtering horses reacting to the mallein test has been success-fully initiated by Canada, the returns for 1908 from all parts of the country indicating a considerable decrease from the previous year in the number of horses destroyed and the amount of See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

It also arranged with the various railway companies to run refrigerator cars weekly on the main lines leading to Montreal and other export points. The food-products from any shippers are received into these cars at the various railway stations at the usual rates, without extra See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

The census and See also:

• STATISTICS

Annual reports and occasional bulletins are published and widely distributed, giving the results of this work. Farmers are invited to visit these experimental farms, and a large See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

Since the beginning of the loth century agricultural education and rural training in Canada have been greatly stimulated by the munificence of See also:

• SIR

H. G.) See also:

• HISTORY

From i6o8 to his See also:

• DEATH

The See also:

• JESUITS

In 1665 some 2000 emigrants were sent to Canada; the European population was soon doubled, and See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

His especial zeal was directed towards the welfare of the Indians. These people showed, to their own ruin, a reckless liking for the See also:

• BRANDY

Then the strong man Frontenae was recalled to See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

But their colonies were democracies, disunited because each was pursuing its own special interests, while the French were united under despotic leadership. Frontenac attacked the Iroquois mercilessly in 1696 and forced these proud savages to See also:

• SUE, EUGENE [JosEPH MARIE] (1804—1857)

Her missionaries and leaders were already at Sault Ste See also:

• MARIE

The result was See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

The first English settlers in the conquered country were chiefly See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

But the American Revolution profoundly influenced the life of Canada. The country became the See also:

• REFUGE

The struggle was most vigorous on the Niagara frontier. But in the end the American invasion failed and the treaty made at See also:

• GHENT (Flem. Gent, Fr. Gand)

Lord Sydenham died in 1841 before his work was completed, and he left Canada still in a troubled condition. The French were suspicious of the Union, aimed avowedly at checking their influence, and the complete self-government for which the " Reformers " in English-speaking Canada had clamoured was not yet conceded by the colonial office. But rapidly it became obvious that the provinces united had become too important to be held in leading strings. The issue was finally settled in 1849 when the earl of See also:

• ELGIN

The outbreak of the Civil War in the United States in 1861 increased the demand for such products, and Canada enjoyed an extensive trade with her See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

A See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

The estimated amount of provincial debt assumed by the general government was increased by $1,186,756, and a special annual See also:

• SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve,")

The See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

E. Cartier and the Hon. W. McDougall was in 1868 sent to England to negotiate with the Hudson's Bay Company-(q.v.) for the extinction of its claims, and to arrange with the imperial government for the See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

They resented the presence of the Canadian surveyors sent to lay out roads and townships, and the tactless way in which'some of these did their work increased the suspicion that long-established rights to the soil would not be respected. A population largely Roman Catholic in creed, and partly French in origin and language, feared that an influx of new settlers would overthrow cherished traditions. Some were afraid of increased taxation. A See also:

• GROUP

Meanwhile, during the progre expedition, an act had been passed creating Manitoba a r with full powers of self-government, and the arriva. military was closely followed by that of the first g Mr (later Sir) See also:

• ADAMS
• ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882)
• ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886)
• ADAMS, HENRY (1838— )
• ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT (i858— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850—1901)
• ADAMS, JOHN (1735–1826)
• ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848)
• ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803)
• ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655)
• ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 162o)

That small colony, which ha presented at the Quebec conference, also rejected the of 8651 and, in spite of various efforts to arrange satisfactory terms, has steadily held aloof, and so has. proved the' only obstacle to the complete political unification of British North America. A See also:

• SIGNAL

Much to the annoyance of the peopleof the Dominion the claims for the Fenian raids were withdrawn at the request of the British government, which undertook, to make good to Canada any losses she had suffered. To some of these terms the representative of Canada made a strenuous opposition, and in finally See also:

• SIGNING

See also:

• HINCKS, EDWARD (1792-1866)
• HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS (1807-1885)

While members of the government were exonerated by the report from the charge of personal corruption, the payment of large sums of money by Sir Hugh Allan was fully established, and public feeling on the matter was so strong that Sir. J. Macdonald, while asserting his own innocence, felt compelled to resign without waiting for the vote of ; parliament.. Lord Dufferin, who had succeeded Lord Lisgar as governor-general in 1872, at once sent for the leader of the Opposition, Mr Alexander Mackenzie (q.v.), who 'succeeded in forming a Liberal administration which, on appealing to the constituencies, was supported by an overwhelming majority, and held power for the five following years. On the accession to power of the Liberal party, a new policy was adopted. for the construction of the trans-continental railway. , It was proposed to lessen the cost of construction by utilizing the water stretches along the route, while, on the ground that the contract made was impossible of fulfilment, the period of completion was postponed indefinitely. Meanwhile the surveys and construction were carried forward not by a company, but as ,a government work. Under this arrangement British Columbia became exceedingly restive, holding the Dominion to the engagement by which it had been induced to enter the union. A representative of the government, Mr (later Sir James) See also:

• EDGAR (EADGAR)
• EDGAR, or EADGAR (c. 1050-c. 1130)

The Dominion revenue showed a series of, deficits for several years in succession. The factories of Economic " national policy." the United States, unduly developed by an extreme system of protection, sought in Canada a slaughter market for their surplus products, to the detriment or destruction of Canadian industries. Meanwhile the republic, which had for many years drained Canada of hundreds of thousands of artisans to work its factories, steadily declined to consider any See also:

• SUGGESTION

This long-continued Conservative supremacy was apparently due to the policy of bold and rapid development which it had adopted, and which appealed to a young and ambitious country more strongly than the more cautious proposals of the Liberal leaders. As soon as the government had redeemed its pledge to establish a system of protection a vigorous Corople- railway policy was inaugurated. A contract was made tion of the with a new company to complete the Canadian Pacific Canadian railway within ten years, on condition of receiving a Pacific grant of $25,000,000 and 25,000,000 acres of land, railway. together with those parts of the line already finished under government direction. After fierce debate in parliament these terms were ratified in the session of 1881. The financial difficulties encountered by the company in carrying out their gigantic task were very great, and in 1884 they were compelled to obtain from the Dominion government a loan of $20,000,000 secured on the company's property. This loan was repaid by 1887. Meanwhile the work was carried forward with so much See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

Van See also:

• HORNE, GEORGE (1730-1792)
• HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST (1803–1884)
• HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL (178o-1862)

After a cautious advance the eagerness of the troops finally overcame the hesitation of the See also:

• COMMANDER

Between 1887 and 1891 a vigorous agitation was kept up under Liberal auspices in favour of closer trade relations with the United States, at first under the name of Commercial Union and later under that of Unrestricted Reciprocity. The object in both cases was to break down tariff barriers between the United Staten and Canada, even though that should be at the expense of discrimination against Great Britain. The Conservative party took the position that commercial union, involving as it would a common protective tariff against all other countries, including the motherland, Macdonald's fiscal policy. would inevitably lead to political unification with the United States. The question after long and vehement discussion was brought to a final issue in the election of 1891, and Sir John Macdonald's government was again sustained. From that time protection became the-settled policy of the country. On their accession to power in 1896 it was adopted by the Liberals, who joined to it a preference for the products of the mother country. Under the protective policy thus repeatedly confirmed, Canada gradually became more See also:

• INDEPENDENT

J. C. C. See also:

• ABBOTT
• ABBOTT, EMMA (1849-1891)
• ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879)
• ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877)
• ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- )

Sir See also:

• WILFRID (c. 634-709)

So considerable was the growth of this section of the Dominion that in 1905 it was found necessary to form two new provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan, from the North-West Territories, the area of each being 275,000 sq. m. Each province has a lieutenant-governor and a single legislative chamber, with a representation of four members in the Senate and five in the House of Commons of the Dominion parliament. The control of the public lands is retained by the general government on the ground that it has been responsible for the development of the country by railway construction and emigration. With the rapid increase of population, production in Canada also greatly increased; exports, imports and revenue constantly See also:

• EXPANDED

The use of wood-pulp in the manufacture of paper gave a greatly enhanced value to many millions of acres of northern forest country. The application of electricity to purposes of manufacture and transportation made the waterfalls and rapids in which the country abounds the source of an almost unlimited supply of energy capable of easy distribution for industrial purposes over wide areas. Since See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

See also:

• BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL, SEIGNEUR DE (1473–1524)
• BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS (1828-1898)

The commission, which included three members of the Canadian cabinet and a representative of Newfoundland, and of which Lord See also:

• HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL, 1ST BARON (1837-1899)

See also:

• LODGE
• LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839)
• LODGE, H
• LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850– )
• LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851– )
• LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558–1625)

Under the British North American Act the control of education was reserved for the provincial governments, with a stipulation that all. rights enjoyed by denominational schools at Education. the time of confederation should be respected. See also:

• PRO

The largest of these is Upper Canada College at Toronto. Each province has a number of normal and model schools for the training of teachers. For higher education there are also abundant facilities. M'Gill University at Montreal has been enlarged and splendidly endowed by the munificence of a few private individuals; Toronto University by the provincial legislature of Ontario; Queen's University at Kingston largely by the support of its own graduates and See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

so long their natural means of subsistence, the north- west tribes have been maintained chiefly at the expense of the country. As a result of the great care now used in watching over them there has been a small but steady increase in their numbers. Industrial and boarding schools, established in several of the provinces, by separating the children from the degrading influences of their home life, have proved more effectual than day schools for training them in the habits and ideas of a higher civilization. (See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.) The constitution of the Dominion embodies the first attempt made to adapt British principles and methods of government to a federal system. The chief executive authority Gonstttu- is vested in the sovereign, as is the supreme command ttoo. of the military and naval forces. The governor-general represents, and fulfils the functions of, the crown, which appoints him. He holds office for five years, and his powers are strictly limited, as in the case of the sovereign, all executive acts being done on the advice of his cabinet, the members of which hold office only so long as they retain the confidence of the people as expressed by their representatives in parliament. The governor-general has, however, the independent right to withhold his assent to any bill which he considers in conflict with imperial interests. The following governors-general have represented the crown since the federation of the• provinces, with the year of their appointment: See also:

• VISCOUNT (through O. Fr. viscomte, mod. vicomte, from Low Lat. vice-comes, cf. Portug. visconde, Ital. visconte)

The House of Commons consists of representatives elected directly by the people. The number of:. members, originally 196, is subject to change after each decennial census. The basis adopted in the British North America Act is that Quebec shall always have 65 representatives, and each of the other provinces such a number as will give the same proportion of members to its population as the number 65 bears to the population of Quebec at each census. In 1908 the number of members was 218. Members of the Senate and of the House of Commons receive an annual See also:

• INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

For purely local matters municipal institutions are organized to cover counties and townships, cities and towns, all based on an exceedingly democratic franchise. The creation of a supreme court engaged the attention of Sir John Macdonald in the early years after federation, but was only finally accomplished in 1876, during the premiership of Alexander Mackenzie. This court is presided over by a chief justice, with five See also:

• PUISNE (from O. Fr. puisne, modern puine, later born, inferior; Lat. postea, afterwards, and natus, born)

(G. R. P.) LITERATURE 1. English-Canadian Literature is marked by the weaknesses as well as the merits of colonial life. The struggle for existence, the conquering of the wilderness, has left scant room for broad culture or scholarship, and the very fact that Canada is a colony, however free to control her own affairs, has stood in the way of the creation of anything like a national literature. And yet, while Canada's intellectual product is essentially an offshoot of the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

They were men of action, not of words; and had no thought of See also:

• LITERARY

Histories of the maritime provinces have been written by Thomas See also:

• CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM (1828-1889)
• CHANDLER, RICHARD (1738-1810)
• CHANDLER, SAMUEL (1693-1766)
• CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH (1813-1879)

See also:

• BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. (3ios, life, and yp&4 , writing)

While mediocrity is the prevailing characteristic of most of what passes for See also:

• POETRY

See also:

• DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-r86o)
• DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897)
• DRUMMOND, THOMAS (r797-1840)
• DRUMMOND, WILLIAM (1585-1649)

Of later Canadian novelists mention may be made of Sara See also:

• JEANNETTE