XI1I . 29according to the See also:

• SPECIAL

See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

72. 11 Hungarians Germans Slovaks Rumanians Ruthenians Croatians Servians Others. Census.I (Magyars). (Nemet). (Tot). (Oldh). (Ruttsen). (Horv¢t). (Szerb). — 1880 6,404,070 1,870,772 1,855,451 2,403,041 353,229 639,986 223,054 1890 7,357,936 1,990,084 1,896,665 2,589,079 379,786 194,412 495,133 259,893 1900 8,588,834 1,980,423 1,991,402 2,784,726 423,159 188,552 434,641 329,837 i.e. in percentages of the total population: 1880 46.58 13.61 13'49 17.48 2'57 4'65 1.62 --J 1890 48'53 13.12 12.51 17.08 2.50 1.28 3.27 1.71 1900 51.38 11.88 11.88 16.62 2.52 1.17 2.60 1.95 Area in Acres in Hungary Proper. Cereal. Average per Annum.

1900. 1907. 1881-85. 1886-9o. 1891-95. Wheat . . 6,483,876 7,014,891 7,551,584 8,142,303 8,773,440 Rye . . 2,475,301 2,727,078 2,510,093 2,546,738 2,529,350 Barley . . 2,420,393 2,491,422 2,407,469 2,485,117 2,885,160 Oats . . 2,460,080 2,546,582 2,339,297 2,324,992 2,898,780 Maize 4,567,18614,681,376 5,222,538 5,469,050 7,017,270 Produce in Millions of Bushels. Cereal. Average per Annum.

1900. 1907. 1881-85. 1886-90. 1891-95. Wheat . . 99'8 121'3 144'9 137'3 128.5 Rye . . 41'8 42'1 46'5 39'2 38.0 Barley . . 46.2 43'7 53.6 49'7 51.0 Oats . . 53'9 52.3 64.9 63'6 43.7 Maize 92.4 86.4 118.0 121i 158'7 In Croatia-Slavonia no See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

Certain districts are distinguished for particular kinds of See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

4,879,334 5,829,483 See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

159 seq. 2 lb. p. 349 seq.oxen, 56,540 cows, 23,765 bulls and 19,643 breeding cattle, as well as a large number of carcases. Sheep are not stocked so extensively as cattle, and are tending rapidly to decrease, a result due to the spread of intensive cultivation and the rise in value of the soil. They are not exported, but there is a considerable export trade in See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

The average yearly yield of gold is about £1oo,000, and that of silver about the same amount. The See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

Mineral Springs.—Hungary possesses a great number of See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

The principal industry of Hungary is See also:

• FLOUR

Commerce.—Hungary forms together with Austria one customs and commercial territory, and the statistics for the See also:

• FOREIGN

Of these 95 vessels with a tonnage of 89,161 tons were steamers. Fifty-four vessels with 84,844 tons and crews numbering 1168 persons were sea-going; 134 with 6587 tons were See also:

• COASTING

sr ' Merchandise passing the boundaries is subject to See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

The king is the head of the executive, the supreme See also:

• COMMANDER

The Hungarian parliament has power to legislate on all matters concerning Hungary, but for Croatia-Slavonia only on matters which concern these provinces in common with Hungary. The, executive power is vested in a responsible See also:

• CABINET

Hungary proper, according to ancient usage, was generally divided into four great divisions or circles, and Transylvania up to 1876 was regarded as the fifth. In 1876 a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

Besides these sixty-three rural counties for Hungary, and eight for Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary has twenty-six See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

During the years 1891-1895 the annual revenue was £42,100,000 and the ex- Expenditure. 1904 £49,611,200 £49,592,400 1908 57,896,845 57,894,923 The See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

None of them possesses an overwhelming majority, but perfect equality is granted to all religious See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

The Orthodox Eastern Church in Hungary is subject to the authority of the See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

By a law passed in 1868 attendance at school is obligatory on all See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

They have four faculties: of See also:

• THEOLOGY

See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

The Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats and See also:

• AVARS

Already, in 926, they had crossed the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

The splendour of the imperial city profoundly impressed all the northern barbarians, and the Magyars, during the loth century, saw a great See also:

• DEAL

That successor, See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Every monastery erected in the Magyar wildernesses was not only a centre of religion, but a See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

Central and western Hungary (the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

The title of count (grof) was assumed later (15th century) by those nobles who had succeeded, in spite of the Golden Bull, in making' their authority over whole counties independent and hereditary.—[Ed.] and See also:

• PRIMITIVE

Ladislaus planted large Petcheneg colonies in Transylvania and Ladislaus the trans-Dravian provinces, and established military and co/See also:

• OMAN

During the reign of Coloman, moreover, the number of freemen was increased by the frequent manumission of serfs. ' The See also:

• BAN

The Eastern Empire ceased to be formidable on the death of Manuel (ro8o), and Hungary was free once more to pursue a policy of aggrandizement. In Dalmatia the Venetians Bela n!. were too strong for her; but she helped materially to break up the See also:

• BYZANTINE

On the other hand, the principle of the exemption of all the nobles from taxation is confirmed, as well as their right to refuse military service abroad, the defence of the realm being their See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

(1270-1272) to a Kumanian girl, and during the and See also:

• LATH (0. Eng. laett, Mid. Eng. lappe, a form possibly due to the Welsh llath; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch lat, Ger. Latte, and has passed into Romanic, cf. Ital. latta, Fr. latte)

These triumphs were achieved while the monarchy was absolute, and thus able to concentrate in its hands all the resources of the state, but towards the end of the period a political revolution began. The weakness and prodigality of the later Arpads, the depopulation of the realm during the Tatar invasion, the infiltration of western feudalism and, finally, the endless civil discords of the 13th century, brought to the front a powerful and predacious class of barons who ultimately overshadowed the throne. The ancient county system was gradually absorbed by this new governing element. The ancient royal tenants became the feudatories of the great nobles, and fell naturally into two classes, the nobiles bene possessionati, and the nobiles unius sessions, in other words the richer and the poorer gentry. We cannot trace the gradations of this political revolution, but we know that it met with determined opposition from the crown, which resulted in the utter destruction of the Arpads, who, while retaining to the last their splendid See also:

• PHYSICAL

They brought from their native Italy a thorough knowledge of the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

This " principle of aviticity " (osiseg, aviticum), which survived till 1848, was intended to preserve the large feudal estates as part of the new military system, but its ultimate effect was to hamper the development of the country by preventing the See also:

• ALIENATION (from Lat. alienus, belonging to another)

In 138o they threatened Croatia and Dalmatia. Hungary herself was now directly menaced, and the very circumstances which had facilitated the advance of the Turks, enfeebled the potential resistance of the Magyars. The Arpad kings had succeeded in encircling their whole southern frontier with half a dozen military colonies or banates, comprising, roughly speaking, Little See also:

• WALACHIA, or WALLAHHIA

Both Servia and Bulgaria were by this time split up into half a dozen principalities which, as much for religious as for political reasons, preferred paying See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

In Hungary, meanwhile, impatience at the rule of See also:

• WOMEN

1430). Not till 1409 could Sigismund be said-to be king in his own realm, yet in 1413 we find him traversing Europe in his endeavour to terminate the Great See also:

• SCHISM

It was still, however, essentially an assembly of notables, lay and clerical, at which the gentry, though technically eligible, do not seem to have been directly represented. At Sigismund's first diet (1397) it was declared that the king might choose his counsellors where he listed, and at the diet of 1397 he invited the free and royal towns to send their deputies to the parliament. Subsequently this privilege was apparently erected into a See also:

• STATUTE

Simultaneously from Nasslee& the west came the Hussite propagandists teaching that all men were equal, and that all property should be held in common. The suffering Magyar multitudes eagerly responded to these seductive teachings, and the result was a series of dangerous popular risings (the worst in 1433 and 1436) in which See also:

• HERESY

27, 1439), in the forty-second year of his age, in the course of the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

All this time the pressure of the Turks upon the southern provinces of Hungary had been continuous, but fortunately all their efforts had so far been frustrated by the valour and of the ban of Szoren John j generalship Y~ Huayadi. See also:

• HUNYADI, LASZLO (1433—1457)

The western provinces were held by Frederick himself. Invaluable time was wasted in negotiating with these intruders before the governor could safely devote himself to the task of expelling the Turk from the southern provinces. He had to be content with armistices, reconciliations and matrimonial contracts, because the great dignitaries of the state, men like the palatine Laszlo Garai, Count See also:

• ULRICH

(See MATTHIAS I., king of Hungary.) This See also:

• PRODIGY

The cavalry consisted of the famous Hussars, or See also:

• LIGHT

This See also:

• MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to wonder)

For education so scholarly a monarch as Matthias naturally did what he could. He founded the university of Pressburg (Academia Istropolitana, 1467), revived the declining university of Pecs, and, at the time of his death, was meditating the establishment of a third university at Buda. Unfortunately the civilizing efforts of Matthias made but little impression on society at large. The bulk of the Magyar nobility was still semi-barbaric. Immensely wealthy (it is estimated that most of the land, at this time, was in the hands of 25 great families, the Zapolyas alone holding an eighth of it), it was a point of See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

But the moral See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

Of agricultural produce there was barely sufficient for home consumption, but the mining industries had reached a very high level of excellence, and iron, See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

Besides, his ands were tied by the unappeasable enmity of the emperor and the emperor's See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

How Janos was cajoled out of an almost impregnable position, and gradually reduced to insignificance, is told elsewhere (see CoxvlNUS, JANOS). The nobles vvldlsand prelates, who detested the severe and strenuous pus ll. Matthian system, desired, as they expressed it, " a king whose See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

Like Poland two centuries later, Hungary had ceased to be a civilized autonomous state because her prelates and her magnates, uncontrolled by any higher authority, and too ignorant or corrupt to look beyond their own immediate interests, abandoned themselves to the exclusive enjoyment of their inordinate privileges, while openly repudiating their primal obligation of defending the state against extraneous enemies. During these miserable years everything like patriotism or public spirit seems to have died out of the See also:

• HEARTS

All that the gentry could do was to depress the lower orders, and this they did at every opportunity. Thus, many of the towns, notably Visegrad, were deprived of the charters granted to them by Matthias, and a whole series of anti-civic ordinances were passed. Noblemen dwelling within the walls of the towns were especially exempted from all civic burdens, to pay See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

He therefore supported Venice against her enemies, refused to enter the League of Cambray in 1508, and concluded a ten years' alliance with the Signoria, which obliged Hungary to defend Venetian territory without any equivalent gain. Less reprehensible, though equally self-seeking, were his dealings with the emperor, which aimed at a family alliance between the Jagiellos and the Habsburgs on the basis of a double See also:

• MARRIAGE

The same spirit of hostility to the peasantry breathed through The Tri- the famous condification of the Hungarian customary partitum. law known as the Tripartitum, which, though never actually formally passed into law, continued until 1845 to be the only document defining the relations of king and people, of nobles and their peasants, and of Hungary and her dependent states.' Wladislaus II. died on the 13th of March 1516, two years after the " Savage Diet," the ferocity of whose decrees he had feebly endeavoured to mitigate, leaving his two Subjection kingdoms to his son Louis, a child of ten, who was by the pronounced of age in order that his foreign guardians, Turks. the emperor Maximilian and Sigismund of Poland, might be dispensed with. The government remained in the hands of Cardinal Bak6cz till his death in 1521, when the supreme authority at court was disputed between the lame palatine Istvan See also:

• BATHORY, SIGISMUND (ZSIGMOND), (1572-1613)

The Magyars fancied they were safe from attack, because the final See also:

• ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

The sultan refused to believe that the pitiful See also:

• ARRAY (from the O. Fr. areyer, Med. Lat. arredare, to get ready)

In 1529 Zapolya was reinstated in Buda by Suleiman the Magnificent in person, who, at this period, preferred setting up a Rival rival to " the king of Vienna " to conquering Hungary Kings. outright. Thus the Magyars were saddled with two rival kings with equally valid titles, which proved an even worse disaster than the Mohacs catastrophe; for in most of the counties of the unhappy kingdom desperadoes of every description plundered the estates of the gentry, and oppressed the common people, under the pretext that they were fighting the battles of the contending monarchs. The determination of Ferdinand to partition Hungary rather than drive the Turks out, which he might easily have done after Suleiman's unsuccessful attempts on Vienna in 1529-1530, led to a prolongation of the struggle till the 24th of February 1538, when, by the See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

His fears were instantly justified. In August 1541, Suleiman, at the head of a vast army, invaded Hungary, and on the 3oth of August, Buda was in his hands. During the six following years the sultan still further improved his position, capturing, amongst many other places, Pecs, and the primatial city of Esztergom; but, in 1547, the exigencies of the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

The diet, which had the power of the See also:

• PURSE (Late Lat. bursa, adapted from Gr. Gupta, hide, skin; possibly O. Eng. pusa, bag, has influenced the change from b to p)

Zapolya, a devout Catholic, is lauded by Archbishop Frangipan in 1533 for arresting the spread of the new doctrines, though he would not allow Martinuzzi to take the extreme step of burning perverts at the stake. These perverts were mostly to be found among nobles desirous of amassing church property, or among those of the clergy who clamoured for communion in both kinds. So long, however, as the old national kingdom survived, the majority of the people still clung to the old faith. Under Ferdinand the parochial clergy were tempted to become Lutherans by the prospect of See also:

• MATRIMONY (Lat. matrimonium, marriage, which is the ordinary English sense)

The method generally adopted was to deprive the preachers in the towns of their churches by force, Italian mercenaries being preferably employed for the purpose. It was assumed that the Protestant nobles' See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

Basta was authorized to Germanize and Catholicize embellishment of their capital, Gyulafehervar, which became a without delay, and he began by dividing the property of most of sort of Protestant See also:

• MECCA (Arab. Makkah)

From the peace of the See also:

• REPEAL (O.F. rapel, modern rappel, from rapeler, rappeler, revoke, re and appeler, appeal)

In as prince, Transylvania had descended to the rank of a feudatory Transylvania, meantime, Gabriel Bath6ry had been elected of the Turkish empire. On the death of Mahommed Kuprili (Nov. u, 1608) in place of the decrepit Sigismund Rakoczy, (Oct. 11, 1661) his son Fazil Ahmed succeeded him as grand Bocskay's immediate successor. vizier, and pursued his father's policy with equal genius and For more than fifty years after the peace of Vienna the princi- determination. In 1663 he invaded royal Hungary, with the pality of Transylvania continued to be the See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

Yet, despite these the Protestants a See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

of commanding genius. During his primacy (1616-1637), when he had the whole influence of the court, and the sympathy and the assistance of the Catholic world behind him, he put the See also:

• FINISHING

The conduct of the Hungarian nobles in the past, indeed, some-what justified this estimate, for the fall of the ancient monarchy was entirely due to their persistent disregard of authority, to their refusal to bear their share of the public burdens. They were now to suffer severely for their past misdoings, but unfortunately the See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

It was replied that Hungary was outside the operation of the treaty of Westphalia, and that the Protestants had been condemned not ex odio religionis but crimine rebellionis. But a high-spirited nation cannot be extinguished by any number of See also:

• PATENTS

SOBIESKI, KING OF POLAND). What is not quite so generally known is the fact that Leopold slackened at once and would have been quite content with the results of these earlier victories had not the pope stiffened his resistance by forming a Holy League between the Emperor, Poland, Venice, Muscovy and the papacy, with the avowed object of dealing the Turk the coup de See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

The ruthless suppression of the Magyar malcontents, in which there was little discrimination between the innocent and the guilty, had so crushed the spirit of the country that Leopold considered the time ripe for realizing a long-cherished ideal of the Habsburgs and changing Hungary from an elective into an hereditary monarchy. For this purpose a diet was assembled at Pressburg in the autumn of 1687. It was a mere rump, for wholesale executions had thinned its numbers and the reconquered countries were not represented in it. To this weakened and terrorized assembly the emperor-king explained that he had the right to treat Hungary as a conquered country, but that he was prepared to confirm its constitutional liberties under three conditions: the inaugural diploma was to be in the form signed by Ferdinand I., the crown was to be declared hereditary in the house of Habsburg, and the 31st clause of the Golden Bull, authorizing armed resistance to unconstitutional acts of the sovereign, was to be .abrogated. These conditions the diet had no choice but to accept, and, in October 1687, the elective monarchy of Hungary, which had been in existence for nearly seven hundred years, ceased to exist. The immediate effect of the peace of Karlowitz was thus only to strengthen despotism in Hungary. Kollonich, who had been created a cardinal in 1685, archbishop of Kalocsa in 1691 and archbishop of Esztergom (Gran) and primate of Hungary in 1695, was now at the head of affairs, and his plan was to germanize Hungary as speedily as possible by promoting a wholesale immigration into the recovered provinces, all of which were in a terrible state of See also:

• DILAPIDATION (Lat. for " scattering the stones," lapides, of a building)

(q.v.), who was elected prince by the Hungarian estates on the 6th of July 1704, and during the next six years gave the emperor See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Moreover, the next century and a half was a period of domestic tranquillity, during which Hungary was able to repair the ruin of the long Turkish wars, See also:

• NURSE (a shortened form of the earlier " nourice," adapted through the French from Lat. nutrix, nu/rite, to nourish)

the peace of Passarowitz (July 21, 1718), by which the Temeskoz was also freed from the Turks, and Servia, Northern Bosnia and Little Walachia, all of them ancient conquests of Hungary, were once more incorporated with the territories of the crown of St Stephen. The second war, though undertaken in league with See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

She employed the proceeds of the vast sums coming to her from the See also:

• CONFISCATION (from Lat. confiscare, to consign to the fiscus, or imperial treasury)

In 1784 the Language See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

The legislative functions were to be exercised by the king and the diet conjointly and by them alone. The diets were henceforth to be triennial, and every new king was to See also:

• PLEDGE

Hungarian society, not unaffected by western Liberalism, but without any direct help from abroad, was preparing for the future emancipation. Writers, savants, poets, artists, noble and plebeian, layman and cleric, without any previous See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

Hungary had, to all intents and purposes, become an class exclusiveness and reviving a healthy public spirit. The independent state bound to Austria only by the fact that the effect of this teaching was See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

Two progressive measures of the highest importance were The emperor and his ministers hoped that, having passed by this diet, one making Magyar the official language of conceded the demands of the Magyars, they would detta- chlch. Hungary, the other freeing the peasants' holdings from all receive the help of the Hungarian government in feudal obligations, crushing the revolution elsewhere, a hope that seemed to be The results of the diet of 1839 did not satisfy the advanced justified by the readiness with which Batthyany consented to Liberals, while the opposition of the government and of the send a contingent to the assistance of the imperialists in Italy. Kossuth. Upper House still further embittered the general That the encouragement of the Slav aspirations was soon discontent. The chief exponent of this See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

Under pressure from the palatine of Batthyany political parties. Szechenyi openly joined the government, an imperial edict was issued, on the 7th day of May, ordering the while the moderate Liberals separated from the extremists and ban to desist from his separatist plans and take his orders from formed a new party, the Centralists. Immediately before the Pest. He not only refused to obey, but on the 5th of June See also:

• CON

All See also:

• FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse flo, layer, level plain)

The immediate result was to place the extreme revolutionaries in power at Pest. Szechenyi had lost his See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

3) which ended in the murder of the minister of war, Latour, and the second See also:

• FLIGHT

The Magyars at once took up the challenge. On the 7th the Hungarian diet formally refused to acknowledge the title of the new king, " as without the knowledge and consent of the diet no one could sit on the Hungarian throne," and called the nation to arms. Constitutionally, in the Magyar opinion, Ferdinand was still king of Hungary, and this gave to the revolt an excuse of legality. Actually, from this time until the collapse of the rising, Louis Kossuth was the ruler of Hungary. The struggle opened with a series of Austrian successes. Prince Windischgratz, who had received orders to reduce Hungary by See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

Immediately after this proclamation Gorgei disappeared with his army among the hills of Upper Hungary, and, despite the difficulties of a phenomenally severe winter and the constant pursuit of vastly superior forces, fought his way down to the valley of Hernad—and safety. This masterly winter-campaign first revealed Gorgei's military genius, and the discipline of that terrible See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

On the 7th of March the diet of Kremsier proclama- was dissolved, and immediately afterwards a proclamation of a tion was issued in the name of the emperor Francis united Joseph establishing a united constitution for the whole empire. empire, of which Hungary, cut up into half a dozen administrative districts, was henceforth to be little more than the largest of several subject provinces. The See also:

• NEWS

The Russians were by this time well on their way to the Theiss, and the terrible See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

It ' The crowning atrocities, which the Magyars have never wholly forgiven, were the See also:

• SHOOTING

It was plain that at the first revolutionary blast from without, or the first insurrectionary outburst from within, the " Bach System " would vanish like a See also:

• MIRAGE (a French word, from mirer, to look at, se mirer, to be reflected)

The project, elaborated by patent, Anton von See also:

• SCHMERLING, ANTON VON (1805-1893)

The peace of Prague (Aug. 20, r866), excluding Austria from Italy and Germany, made the fate of the Habsburg monarchy absolutely dependent upon a compromise with the Magyars. (For the Compromise or Ausgleich, see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: History.) On the 7th of November 1866, the diet-reassembled. On the 17th of February 1867 a responsible independent ministry was formed under Count Gyula Andrassy. On the 29th of May the new constitution was adopted by 209 votes to 89. Practically it was an amplification of the March Laws of 1848. The coronation took place on the 8th of June, on which occasion the king solemnly declared that he wished " a See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

Within this broad division, however, have appeared from time to time political groups in bewildering variety, each adopting a party designation according to the exigencies of the moment, but each basing its programme on one or other of the theoretical foundations above mentioned. Thus, at the outset, the most heterogeneous elements were to be found both on the Left and Right. .The Extreme Left was infected by the fanaticism of Kossuth, who condemned the compromise and refused to take the benefit of the amnesty, while the prelates and magnates who had originally opposed the compromise were now to be found by the side of Deal and Andrassy. The Dealt party preserved its majority at the elections of 1869, but the Left Centre and Extreme Left returned to the diet considerably reinforced. The outbreak of the Franco- German War of 187o turned the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

The national credit was so seriously impaired abroad that foreign loans could only be obtained at ruinous rates of interest. During this period Dealt had almost entirely withdrawn from public life. His last great speech was delivered on the 28th of June 18i3, and he died on the 29th of January 1876. Fortun- ately, in Kalman See also:

• TISZA, KALMAN [KOLOMAN] (1830-1902)

But the opposition, while unable to deny the recuperation of Hungary, shut their eyes to everything but Tisza's " tyranny, " and their attacks were never so savage and unscrupulous as during the session of 1889, when threats of a revolution were uttered by the opposition leaders and the premier could only enter or leave the House under police protection. The tragic death of the crown prince Rudolph hushed for a time the strife of See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

The encroachments of the Catholic clergy, and notably religious szen majority by a fresh See also:

• FUSION

The Liberal party, however, realized the See also:

• ABYSS (Gr. as, privative, ,6u6QOs, bottom)

This was at once followed by an anti-ministerial fusion of the extremists of all parties, The including seceders from the government (known as the ., Constitutional party); and when the diet reassembled, tion." the opposition broke into the House by force and wrecked all the See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

On the other hand the Austrians pointed out that not only would failure to understand each other's language cause fatal confusion on a battlefield, but also tend to disintegrate the forces even in peace time. They also laid stress on the fact that Magyar was not, any more than German, the language of many Hungarian regiments, consisting as these did mainly of Slovaks, Vlachs, Serbs and Croats. In resisting the Magyar word of command, then, the king-emperor was able to See also:

• APPEAL

HISTORY] extra-parliamentary ministry, and on the 21st of June Baron Fejervary, an officer in the royal bodyguard, was nominated minister president with a cabinet consisting of little- known permanent officials. Instead of presenting the roent.n usual programme, the new premier read to the parlia- ment a royal autograph letter stating the reasons which had actuated the king in taking this course, and giving as the task of the new ministry the continuance of negotiations with the Coalition on the basis of the exclusion of the language question. The parliament was at the same time prorogued. A period followed of arbitrary government on the one hand and of stubborn passive resistance on the other. Three times .the parliament was again prorogued—from the 15th of September to the loth of October, from this date to the 19th of December, and from this yet again to the 1st of March 1906—in spite of the protests of both Houses. To the repressive measures of the government—press censorship, curtailment of the right of public meeting, dismissal of recalcitrant officials, and dragooning of disaffected county assemblies and municipalities—the Magyar nation opposed a sturdy refusal to pay taxes, to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

Joszef Krist6ffy, the minister of the interior, in the programme issued by him on the 26th of November 1905. Other proposals were: the maintenance of the system of the joint army as established in 1867, but with the con-cession that all Hungarian recruits were to receive their education in Magyar; the maintenance till 1917 of the actual customs convention with Austria; a reform of the land laws, with a view to assisting the poorer proprietors; complete religious equality; universal and compulsory primary education. The issue of a programme so liberal, and notably the inclusion in it of the idea of universal suffrage, entirely checkmated the opposition parties. Their official See also:

• ORGANS

The dominant Magyar parties were committed to the principle of franchise reform; but they were determined that this reform should be of such a nature as not to imperil their own hegemony. What this would mean was pointed out by Mr Krist6ffy in an address delivered at Budapest on the 14th of March 1907. " If the work of social reform," he said, " is scamped by a measure calculated to falsify the essence of reform, the struggle will be continued in the Chamber until full electoral liberty is attained. Till then there can be no social peace in Hungary." 4 The postponement of the question was, indeed, already producing ugly symptoms of popular indignation. On the loth of October 1907 there was a great and orderly demonstration at Budapest, organized by the socialists, in favour of reform. About See also:

• IOO

Every male Hungarian See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

4 Ibid. October 15, 1907. Coalition Ministry, 1906. to preserve " the Magyar State idea intact." Its result, had it passed, would have been to strengthen the representation of the Magyar and German elements, to reduce that of the Slovaks, and almost to destroy that of the Rumans and other non-Magyar races whose educational status was low.' On the other hand, according to the Neue Freie Presse, it would have increased the number of electors from some million See also:

• ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute)

The ministry was divided on the issue, Count Andrassy opposing and Mr Ferencz Kossuth supporting the proposal for a separate bank. Finally, the See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

But Lukacs had no choice but to apply in the first instance to Mr Kossuth and his friends, and these, suspecting an intention of crushing their party by entrapping them into unpopular engagements, rejected his overtures. Nothing now remained but for the king to request Dr Wekerle to remain " for the present " in office with his colleagues, thus postponing the settlement of the crisis (July 4). This procrastinating policy played into the hands of the extremists; for supplies had not been voted, and the question of the credits for the expenditure incurred in connexion with the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, increasingly urgent, placed a powerful weapon in the hands of the Magyars, and made it certain that in the autumn the crisis would assume an even more acute form. By the middle of September affairs had again reached an impasse. On the 14th Dr Wekerle, at the ministerial conference assembled at Vienna for the purpose of discussing the estimates to be laid before the delegations, announced that the dissensions among his colleagues made the continuance of the Coalition government impossible. The burning points of controversy were the magyarization of the Hungarian regiments and the question of the separate state bank. On the first of these Wekerle, Andrassy and Apponyi were prepared to accept moderate concessions; as to the second, they were opposed to the question being raised at all. Kossuth and Justh, on the other hand, competitors for the leadership of the Independence party, declared themselves not prepared to accept anything short of the full rights of the Magyars in those matters. The matter was urgent; for parliament was to meet on the 28th, and it was important that a new cabinet, acceptable to it, should be appointed before that date, or that the Houses should be prorogued pending such appointment; otherwise the delegations would be postponed and no credits would be voted for the cost of the new Austro-Hungarian " Dreadnoughts " and of the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. In the event, neither of these courses proved possible, and on the 28th Dr Wekerle once more announced his resignation to the parliament. The prime minister was not, however, as yet to be relieved of an impossible responsibility. After a period of wavering Mr Kossuth had consented to shelve for the time the question of the separate bank, and on the strength of this Dr Wekerle advised the crown to entrust to him the formation of a government.

The position thus created raised a twofold question: Would the crown accept? In that event, would he be able to carry his party with him in support of his modified programme? The answer to the first question, in effect, depended on that given by events to the second; and this was not long in declaring itself. The plan, concerted by Kossuth and Apponyi, with the approval of Baron Aehrenthal, was to carry on a medified coalition government with the aid of the Andrassy Liberals, the National party, the Clerical People's party 2 and the Independence party, on a basis of suffrage reform with plural franchise, the 2 The People's party first emerged during the elections of 1896, when it contested 98 seats. Its object was to resist the anti-clerical tendencies of the Liberals, and for this purpose it appealed to the " nationalities " against the dominant Magyar parties, the due enforcement of the Law of Equal Rights of Nationalities (1868) forming a main item of its programme. Its leader, Count Zichy, in a speech of Jan. 1, 1897, declared it to be neither national, nor Liberal, nor Christian to oppress the nationalities. See Seton-Watson, p. 185. prolongation of the charter of the joint bank, and certain con-cessions to Magyar demands in the matter of the army. It was soon clear, however, that in this Kossuth would not carry his party with him. A trial of strength took place between him and Mr de Justh, the champion of the extreme demands in the matter of Hungarian financial and economic autonomy; on the 7th of November rival banquets were held, one at Mako, Justh's See also:

• CONSTITUENCY (from " constituent," that which forms a necessary part of a thing; Lat. constituere, to create)

The Independence party was now split into two groups: the " Independence and 1848 party," and the " Independence, 1848 and Kossuth party." On the 12th Mr de Justh resigned the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

On the 28th the Hungarian parliament adjourned sine See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

But a nation that for a thousand years had maintained its individuality in the midst of hostile and rival races could not be expected to allow itself without a struggle to be sacrificed to the force of mere numbers, and the less so if it were justified in its claim that it stood for a higher ideal of culture and civilization. The Magyars had certainly done much to justify their claim to a special measure of enlightenment. In their efforts to establish Hungarian independence on the firm basis of national efficiency they had succeeded in changing their country from one of very backward economic conditions into one which promised to be in a position to hold its own on equal terms with any in the world. (W. A. P.) On the See also:

• SOURCES

Chelard, La Hongrie millenaire (Paris, 1896) ; Mor Gelleri, A us der Vergangenheit and Gegenwart des tausendjdhrigen Ungarn (Budapest, 1896); lozsef Jekelfalussy, The Millennium of Hungary (Budapest, 1897); E. Sayous, Histoire generale des Hongrois (2 vols., Budapest, 1st ed., 1876, 2nd ed., ib. 1900) ; Janos See also:

• MAJLATH, JANOS, or JOHN, COUNT (1786-1855)

For works on the Compromise of 1867 and the relations of Austria and Hungary generally, see the bibliography to the article AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. The Magyar or Hungarian language belongs to the northern or. Finno-Ugric (q.v.) division of the Ural-Altaic family, and forms, along with Ostiak and Vogul, the Ugric branch of that division. The See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

8o-87 (Budapest, 1877). 7 Specimen usus linguae Gothicae in eruendis atque illustrandis obscurissimis quibusdam Sacrae Scripturae locis; addita analogia linguae Gothicae cum Sinica, necnon Finnicae Cum Ungarica (See also:

• UPSALA, or UPPSALA

The first Hungarian See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

In addition to the above may be mentioned the work of Kresznerics, where the words are arranged according to the roots (Buda, 1831–1832); the Etymologisches Worterbuch . aus chinesischen Wurzeln, of Podhorszky (Paris, 1877) ; Lexicon linguae Hungaricae aevi antiquioris, by Szarvas Gabor and Simonyi Zsigmond (1889) ; and " Magyar-Ugor dsszehasonlito szotar " Hungarian Ugrian Comparative Dictionary, by Bydenz (Budapest, 1872–1879). Other and more general dictionaries for German scholars are those of Marton, Lexicon trilingue Latino-Hungarico-Germanicum (Vienna, 1818–1823), A. F. See also:

• RICHTER, ADRIAN LUDWIG (1803-1884)
• RICHTER, ERNST FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1808–1879)
• RICHTER, EUGEN (1839–1906)
• RICHTER, HANS (1843– )
• RICHTER, JEREMIAS BENJAMIN (1762–1807)
• RICHTER, JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH (1763–1825)

Amongst the earliest Latin works that claim attention are the " See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)