See also:

• MEDIEVAL

In Thuringia, which now only consisted of the central part of the former kingdom, King Dagobert I. set up in 634 a duke named Radulf who soon asserted his independence of Dagobert and of his successor, See also:

• SIGEBERT (d. 575)

One of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

Some traces of See also:

• ROMAN

The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

Although not yet a single people, the German tribes had now for the first time a ruler whose authority was confined to their own lands, and from this time the beginnings of national See also:

• LIFE

After his death in 899 his kingdom came under the nominal rule of his See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

Rather than acknowledge him, the duke of Lotharingia, or Lorraine, transferred his allegiance to Charles the See also:

• SIMPLE

Henry saw that, while this state of things lasted, the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

The Magyars, unable to cope with a disciplined army, were cut down in great numbers, and those who survived rode in terror from the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

His ambition was of the noblest order, for he sank his See also:

• PERSONAL

Besides maintaining a manly spirit in the population, the towns rapidly added to their importance by the stimulus they gave to all kinds of See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

The duchy of Franconia he kept in his own hands, and in 944 he granted Lorraine to Conrad the Red, an energetic and See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

Having secured peace in Germany and begun the real See also:

• CONQUEST

It is extremely remarkable that this movement acquired so quickly such force and See also:

• VOLUME

With the kingdom divided into five great duchies, the sovereign could Ottdo always have maintained at least so much unity as Henry the duchies. the Fowler secured; and, as the experience of Otto himself showed, there would have been chances of much greater centralization. Yet he threw away this advantage. Lorraine was divided into two duchies, Upper Lorraine and Lower Lorraine. In each duchy of the kingdom he appointed a count See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

But with the Empire and the Papacy in conflict, they could not but abide, as a rule, by the authority which had the most sacred claims to their See also:

• LOYALTY

Otto II., France. having all his father's ambition with much of his strength and haughtiness, longed to get away from Germany and to claim these remoter districts. But he was detained for some time owing to the sudden invasion of Lower Lorraine by Lothair, king of France, in 978. So stealthily did the invader this occasion he received from the pope at Rome the imperial crown. In 966 he wa.s again in Italy, where he re-oft mained six years, exercising to the full his imperial crowned rights in regard to the papacy, but occupied mainly emperor. in an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

As the latter See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

But the emperors were not merely absent, they had to engage in struggles in which they exhausted the energies necessary to enforce obedience at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

Otto was then taken to Germany, and after his father's death he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on See also:

• CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Meanwhile Germany was suffering severely from internal disorders and from the inroads of her rude neighbours; and when in the year l000 Otto visited his northern kingdom there were hopes that he would smite these enemies with the vigour of his predecessors. But these hopes were disappointed; on the contrary, Otto seems to have released Boleslaus, duke of the Poles, from his vague allegiance to the German kings, and he founded an archbishopric at See also:

• GNESEN (Polish, Gniezno)

A third Polish war broke out in ro15. Henry led his troops in See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

He wished to control, not to abolish them. In 1026, when Duke Henry of Bavaria died, he obtained the duchy for his son Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III.; later, despite the opposition of the nobles, he invested the same prince with Swabia, where the ducal family had died out. Franconia was in the hands of Conrad himself; thus Saxony, Thuringia, Carinthia and Lorraine were the only duchies not completely dependent upon the king. When Conrad ascended the throne the safety of Germany was endangered from three different points. On the north was See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Early in his reign he had made a determined enemy of See also:

• GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678)

In Italy, whither he journeyed in Ioa6 and 1036, Conrad was not welcomed. Although as emperor and as king of the Lombards he was the lawful sovereign of that country, the Germans were still regarded as intruders and could only maintain their rights by force. The event which threw the greatest lustre upon this reign was the acquisition of the kingdom of Burgundy, or See also:

• ARLES
• ARLES, KINGDOM OF

He sought to regain lands granted to the church by his predecessors; prelates were employed on public business much less frequently than heretofore. He kept a firm hand over the church, but his rule was purely secular; he took little or no interest in ecclesiastical affairs. During this reign the centre and basis of the imperial power in Germany was moved southwards. Saxony, the home of the Ottos, became less prominent in German politics, while Bavaria and the south were gradually gaining in importance. Henry III., who had been crowned German king and also king of Burgundy during his father's lifetime, took possession Henry /I/. of his great inheritance without the slightest sign of opposition. in June 1039. He was without the See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

Mean-while Saxony and Bavaria were permeated by the spirit of unrest, and Henry returned from Hungary just in time to frustrate a widespread conspiracy against him in southern Germany. Encouraged by the support of the German rebels, Andrew of Hungary repudiated the treaty of peace and the German supremacy in that country came to a sudden end. Among the causes which undermined Henry's strength was the fact that the mediate nobles, who had stood loyally by his father, Conrad, were not his friends; probably his wars made serious demands upon them, and his strict administration of justice, especially his insistence upon the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

sharpened a weapon whose keen edge was first tried against his son. The last years of Henry III. See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

The ambitious prelate, however, had gained great influence over Henry, who had grown up under the most diverse influences. The young king was generous and was endowed with considerable intellectual gifts; but passing as he did from Anno's gloomy palace at Cologne to Adalbert's See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

Zealously carrying out the conditions of the peace, the peasants not only battered down the detested forts, they even destroyed the See also:

• CHAPEL

It was within the memory even of young men that a German king had dismissed three popes, and had raised in Effect at turn four of his own prelates to the Roman see. And Henry's now a pope attempted to See also:

• DRAG (from the Old Eng. dragan, to draw; the word preserves the g which phonetically developed into w)

No other mode of escape than complete scene at Canossa. subjection to Gregory had suggested itself, or was perhaps possible; but it did not See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

During this reign the first crusade took place, and the German king suffered severely from the pious zeal which it expressed The First and intensified. The movement was not in the end Crusade. favourable to papal supremacy, but the early crusaders, and those who sympathized with them, regarded the enemies of the pope as the enemies of religion. The early years of Henry V.'s reign were spent in campaigns in Flanders, Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, but the new king was soon reminded that the dispute over investitures Henry V. was unsettled. Pope See also:

• PASCHAL (Paschalis)

By this See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

Henry was perhaps the most powerful of the king's subjects, nevertheless the dukes of Swabia and Franconia withstood him, and a long war desolated South Germany. This was ended by the submission of Frederick in 1134 and of Conrad in the following year. Lothair's position, which before 1130 was very weak, had gradually become stronger. He had put down the disorder in Bavaria, in Saxony and in Lorraine; a diet held at Magdeburg in 1135 was attended by representatives from the vassal states of Denmark, Hungary, Bohemia and Poland; and in 1136, when he visited Italy for the second time, Germany was in a very peaceful condition. In June 1133 during the king's first visit to Italy he had received from Pope See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

Hermann, however, was not very successful, and when Henry returned to Germany in 1084 he found that his most doughty opponent, Otto of Nordheim, was dead, and that the anti-king had few friends outside Saxony. This duchy was soon reduced to obedience and was treated with See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

Saxony, with the assent of Albert the Bear, was granted by Conrad to Henry the Lion, and Bavaria was given to Henry Jasomirgott, who had just succeeded his brother Leopold as margrave of Austria. But this was only a See also:

• LULL (or LvLLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315)

For his adventurous and imaginative spirit Italy and the imperial title had an irresistible See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

He built towns and encouraged those which already existed; he founded and restored bishoprics in his new territories; and between the Elbe and the Oder he planted bodies of industrious colonists. While he was thus at work a similar task was being performed to the south-east of Saxony by Albert the Bear, the first margrave of Brandenburg, who, by his energetic rule was preparing this country for its great destinies. Early in his reign, by settling a dispute over the crown of Denmark, Frederick brought the king of that country once more into the position of a German vassal. Having spent Frededek the year 1156 in settling the Bavarian question and in Poland in enforcing order in the Rhineland and elsewhere, and aerthe emperor marched into Poland in 1157, compelled m8°Y its ruler, Boleslaus IV., to do the homage which he had previously refused to perform, and in return for services rendered during the campaign and for promises of future aid, raised the duke of Bohemia to the rank of a king, a change which in no way affected his duties to the German crown, but which gave him a certain See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

Their loyalty is well illustrated by the famous scene at See also:

• BESANCON

Then in August 1167, in the midst of the struggle in Italy, came the pestilence which destroyed the imperial army in Rome, and drove the emperor as a fugitive across the Alps. After this humiliation Frederick remained for six years in Germany. He was fully occupied in restoring order in Saxony, in the See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

The extensive duchy of Saxony was completely dismembered. The name was taken by the small portion of the former duchy which was given to Bernard, son of Albert the Bear, the founder of a new Saxon line, and the extensive western part was added to the archbishopric of Cologne. The chief prelates of Saxony and many of the late duke's most important feudatories were made virtually independent of all control save that of the crown. Frederick's object in thus breaking up the two greatest duchies in his kingdom was doubtless to strengthen the imperial authority. But in reality he made it certain that the princes would one day shake off the imperial power altogether; for it was perhaps more difficult for the sovereign to contend with scores of petty nobles than with two or three great princes. Less serious than the struggle with Henry the Lion was Frederick's struggle with See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

In March 1188 Philip of Cologne submitted at Mainz. Germany was now at peace. With the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

At once the rulers of See also:

• BRABANT
• BRABANT, NORTH

Frederick and Henry the Lion. sought in vain for a new king. While they were thus employed the friends of the house of Hohenstaufen, convinced that Frederick's kingship was not possible, chose the late emperor's brother, Philip, duke of Swabia, to fill the vacant throne; soon afterwards the enemies of the house found a candidate in the person of. Henry the Lion's son, Otto of Brunswick, who was also chosen German king. Thus the struggle between Well and Hohenstaufen was renewed and civil war broke out at once. Philip's supporters were the nobles of southern and eastern Germany, while a few cities in the west owned his authority; Otto's friends were found mainly in the north and the north-west of the country. The number of available warriors was increased by the return of many crusaders, among them being the famous soldier, Henry von Kalden, who was mainly responsible for the success of Philip's cause in 1199. If Germany had been unconnected with the Papacy, or even if the Papacy had been as weak as in the days of Henry VI., the issue of the strife would almost certainly have been an early victory for Philip. A majority of the princes were on his side and the French king Philip See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

He was also annoyed by Philip's attitude with regard to a vacancy in the archbishopric of Cologne, and in March 1201 he declared definitely for Otto. The efforts of the pope helped to rekindle the expiring flames of war, and for a year or two success completely deserted Philip. He lost the support of Ottakar of Bohemia and of Herrriann I., See also:

• LANDGRAVE (Ger. Landgraf, from Land, " a country" and Graf, "count" )

Otto then left Italy hurriedly, but he was quickly followed by his young rival, who in the warfare which had already broken out proved himself a formidable opponent. Seeking to mend his failing fortunes, the Welf went to France to support his ally, the English king John, against Philip Augustus, and at the battle of See also:

• BOUVINES

Thus the prelates possessed nearly all the rights of sovereigns, and regarded the pope in Italy and not the king in Germany as their head, a state of affairs which was fatal to the unity, See also:

• NAY, or NEY

He disliked the Privilege of Worms and, favouring the towns against the princes, his policy was diametrically opposed to that of the emperor; however, in 1232 he went to Italy and promised to Otto IV. becomes sole king. Frederick li. obey his father's commands. But in 1234, at a time of great was continued after this event; but in October 1268, by and increasing disorder in Germany, he rebelled; he appealed publicly to the princes for support, gained some followers, especially in his own duchy of Swabia, and made an alliance with the Lombard cities. Confident of his strength Frederick entered Germany with a few attendants in the middle of 1235, and his presence had the anticipated effect of quelling the insurrection; Henry was sent a prisoner to Italy and disappeared from history. Then, in August 1235, amid surroundings of great splendour, the emperor held a diet at Mainz, which was attended by a large number of princes. This diet is very important in the legal history of Germany, because here was issued that great " land peace " (Landfrieden) which became the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

As usual, and the pope. the course of politics in Germany, which at this time was ruled by King Conrad and by the regent Siegfried, archbishop of Mainz (d. 1249), was influenced by this quarrel. Frederick of Austria had allied himself with Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and spurred on by the papal emissary had tried to set up a rival king; but both the Danish and the French princes who were asked to accept this thankless position declined the invitation, and Frederick and Wenceslaus made their peace, the former receiving back his duchies. After the defeat of the Mongols, however, there was again the danger of a rebellion based upon a union between the princes and the pope. Siegfried of Mainz deserted his master, and visiting Germany in 1242 Frederick found it necessary to See also:

• PURCHASE

In January 1256, however, William was killed, and in the following year there was a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

The German Minnesinger and romance-writers, whose See also:

• GOLDEN

During the confusion of the civil war carried on by Otto IV. and Philip, the princes, being subject to hardly any check, freely obtained crown lands and crown rights, and the See also:

• MISCHIEF

So long as the emperor really reigned, they enjoyed only such liberties as they could wring from him, or as he voluntarily conferred. But when the sovereign's power decayed, the imperial cities were really free republics, governing themselves according to their own ideas of law and justice (see See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

This was the real beginning of the electoral See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

The increase of trade and a system of See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

The See also:

• THREAT

By becoming Pfahlburger men were able of escape from the tyranny of the large landholders, and consequently the princes strongly opposed the right of the towns to receive them. Not only did the king take the part of the princes in this important struggle, but he harassed the towns by subjecting them to severe imposts, a proceeding which led to several risings. About this time the princes were gaining influence in another direction. Their assent to all important acts of state, especially to grants of crown property, was now regarded as necessary and was conveyed by means of Willebriefe; henceforward they were not merely the advisers of the king, they were rather partners with him in the business of government. Rudolph had all the sympathies and prejudices of the noble class, and the supreme object of his life was not to increase the power of the state but to add to the greatness of his The own family, a policy which was perhaps justified by Habsburg iamb, the condition of the German kingdom, the ruler of which had practically no strength save that which he derived from his hereditary lands. In this he was very successful. Four years after the fall of Ottakar he obtained from the princes a tardy and reluctant assent to the granting of Austria, Styria and See also:

• CARNIOLA (Ger. Krain)

In his foreign policy Adolph allied himself with Edward I. of England against Philip IV. of France, but after declaring war on France in August 1294 he did nothing to assist his ally, At home he relieved the cities of some of their burdens and upheld them in the quarrel about the Pfahlbiirger; and he sought to isolate Albert of Habsburg, who was treating with Philip of France. But many of the princes were disgusted with him and, led by Albert of Habsburg, See also:

• GERHARD
• GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD (1795-1867)

Although fortunate enough to obtain for his son John the crown of Bohemia, the aggrandizement of his family was not the main object of this remarkable sovereign, the last German king of the old, ambitious type. It was the memory of the Empire which stirred his blood; from the beginning of his reign he looked forward to securing the Lombard and the imperial crowns. His purpose to See also:

• CROSS

Frederick acknowledged his rival, and later the suggestion was put forward that they should rule Germany jointly, but this arrangement aroused much opposition and it came to nothing. Frederick returned into an honourable captivity and died in January 1330. The success of Louis in his war with Frederick was to some extent due to the imperial cities, which supported him from the first. Not only did they pay high taxes, but they made splendid voluntary contributions, thus enabling the sovereign of their choice to continue the fight. But Louis was perhaps still more indebted for his victory to the memorable conflict between the Swiss and the Habsburgs, the defeat of Leopold of Austria at See also:

• MORGARTEN

For a short time after the emperor's return to Germany there was peace. But this was soon broken by a dispute over the succession to the duchy of Carinthia and the See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

Contrary opinions they denounced as pestifera dogmata. But in spite of this support Louis threw away his advantages; he abandoned Edward III. in 1341, although this step did not win for him, as he desired, the goodwill of the pope, Louis and he was soon involved in a more serious struggle and the with John of Bohemia and the Luxemburgs. With Luxemhis Bohemian followers John Henry had made himself burgs. very unpopular in Tirol, where his wife soon. counted herself among his enemies, and in 1341 he was driven from the land, while Margaret announced her intention of repudiating him and marrying the emperor's son Louis, margrave of Brandenburg. The emperor himself entered heartily into this See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

Asserting that the German crown could only be worn by one who had received the papal approbation he called upon Louis to lay it down; the answer was an indignant refusal, and in 1324 the king was declared deposed and excommunicate. ,Thus the ancient struggle between the Papacy and the Empire was renewed, a struggle in which the See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

To the cities he usually showed himself a faithful friend. In many of them there had been for more than a century a struggle between the old patrician families and the democratic See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

Although the principle of election had long been admitted and practised with regard to the The German crown, yet it was surrounded by many See also:

• PRACTICAL

In 1376 some Swabian towns formed a league which, in spite of the imperial See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

However, they minimized this See also:

• HANDICAP

Towards the close of the century the discontent felt at the incompetent and absent German king took a decided form. The movement was led by the four Rhenish electors, and after some preliminary proceedings these princes met in August 1400; having declared Wenceslaus dethroned they chose one of their number, the elector palatine Rupert III., in his See also:

• STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849– )

During the progress of this revolt Germany was so divided and her king was so poor that it was impossible to collect an army of sufficient strength to crush the malcontents. At the diet of Nuremberg in 1422 and at that of Frankfort in 1427 Sigismund endeavoured to raise men and See also:

• MONEY

At'I gth peace was made. The consent of several of the electors having been purchased by concessions, Frederick signed with Pope Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius, in February 1448 the concordat of Vienna, an arrangement which bound the German Church afresh to Rome and perpetuated the very evils from which See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

He had no influence in Italy; in Burgundy he could neither stop Duke Philip the Good from adding Luxemburg to his possessions, nor check the towering ambition of Charles the Bold; while after the death of Charles in 1477 he was equally unable to prevent the king of Rupert chosen king. France from seizing a large part of his lands. Torn by dissensions the Teutonic Order was unsuccessful in checking the encroach- ments of the Poles, and in 1466 the land which it had won in the north-east of Germany passed under the See also:

• SUZERAINTY

Once having been formed these local diets soon extended their functions. They claimed the right of sanctioning taxation; they made their voice heard about the See also:

• EXPENDITURE

He was heir to the extensive Austrian lands, and as the widowed See also:

• HUSBAND

Bertold retorted that redress of grievances must precede See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

A series of diets between 1495 and 1499 produced only mutual recriminations, and then Maximilian met with a serious rebuff. The Swiss refused to pay the common penny and to submit to the jurisdiction of the imperial court of justice. Consequently, in 1499, Maximilian sent such troops as he could collect against them, but his forces were beaten, and by the peace of Basel he was forced to concede all the demands made by the Swiss, who became virtually independent of the Empire. Heartened by this circumstance Bertold and his followers returned to the attack when the diet met at Augsburg in 1500. The common penny as a means of taxation fell into the background, and in its place a scheme was accepted which it was thought would provide the king with an army of about 30,000 men. But more important perhaps was the administrative council, or Reichsregiment, which was established by the diet at this time. A revival of the idea put forward by the elector of Mainz at Worms in 1495, this council was to consist of twenty members appointed by the electors and other princes and by representatives of the cities, with a president named by the king. Its work was practically that of governing Germany, and it was the most considerable encroachment which had yet been made on the power of the king. It is not surprising therefore that Maximilian hated the new body, to the establishment of which he had only consented under great pressure. In 1500 the Reichsregiment met at Nuremberg and began at once to treat for peace with France. Maximilian was not maxi- slow to resent this interference; he refused to appoint mi/lan a president, and soon succeeded in making the meetings hampers of the council impossible. The relations between the the king and the princes were now very strained. reformers.

Bertold called the electors together to decide upon a plan of campaign; Maximilian on his part tried to destroy the electoral union by winning over individual members. The result was that when the elector of Mainz died in 1504 the king's victory was complete. The Reichskammergericht and the Reichsregiment were for all practical purposes destroyed, and greater authority had been given to the Hof rat. Hence-forward it was the king who put forward schemes of reform and the diet which modified or rejected them. When the diet met at Cologne in 1505 Maximilian asked for an army and the See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

Maximilian himself had done a great deal to promote the unity of his Austrian lands and, incidentally, to cut them off from the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

By the growth of the cities in social, if not in political, importance the products of labour were more and more widely diffused; and it was easier than at any previous time for the nation to be moved by common ideas and impulses. The discovery of See also:

• AMERICA

The spiritual princes, besides displaying all the faults of the secular princes, had special defects of their own; and as simony was universally practised, the lives of multitudes of the inferior clergy were a public See also:

• SCANDAL

It was not likely, however, in any case that he would turn against the Roman Church, and that for various reasons. He was by far the most important ruler of the time, and the peoples under his direct sway were still adherents of the old faith. He was king of Spain, of Sicily, of Naples and of See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

were taken to carry these promises into effect. By his Wahlkapitulation Charles had promised to respect the freedom of Germany, for the princes looked upon him as a foreigner. He was neither to introduce foreign troops into the country, nor to allow a foreigner to command German soldiers; he must use the German See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

They had no place in the constitution or in the government of Germany, and they had already paralysed the administration by refusing to pay the taxes. They were intensely jealous of the princes, and it occurred to Hutten and Sickingen that the Reformation might be used to improve the condition of the knights and to effect a See also:

• TOTAL

Thus, solely under the influence of social and economic conditions, various risings of the peasants had taken place during the latter part of the 15th century, the first one being in 1461, and at times the insurgents had combined their forces with those of the lower classes in the towns, men whose condition was hardly more satisfactory than their own. In the last See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

Important ecclesiastical reforms were approved, and instructions forbidding all innovations and calling upon the diet to execute the edict of Worms, sent by the emperor from Spain, were brushed aside on the ground that in the preceding March when this letter was written Charles and the pope were at peace, while now they were at war. Before its dissolution the diet promulgated a decree providing that, pending the assembly of a national council, each prince should order the ecclesiastical affairs of his own state in accordance with his own See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

By this decree they declared their firm intention to abide. The untiring efforts of Philip of Hesse to unite the two wings of the Protestant forces met with very little success, and the famous See also:

• CONFERENCE

Ulrich's attempt, which was made early in 1525, was, however, a failure, and about the same time the peasants drew up twelve articles embodying their demands. These were sufficiently moderate. They asked for a renewal of their ancient rights of fishing and See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

Turks, but the proposals put forward for raising the necessary funds aroused much opposition, an opposition which came mainly from the large and important cities. The citizens appealed to Charles V., who was in Spain, and after some hesitation the emperor decided against the Reichsregiment. Under such disheartening conditions it is not surprising that this body was totally unable to cope with Sickingen's insurrection, and that a few weeks after its meeting at Nuremberg in 1524 it succumbed to a series of attacks and disappeared from the history of Germany. But the Reichsregiment had taken one step, although this was of a negative character. It had shown some sympathy with the reformers and had declined to put the edict of Worms into immediate execution. Hardly less lukewarm, the imperial diet ordered the edict to be enforced, but only as far as possible, and meanwhile the possibilities of See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

They were, however, outnumbered by their enemies, and it was the Romanist majority which dictated the terms of the decree, which was laid before the diet in September, enjoining a return to religious conformity within seven months. The Protestant Rrinces could only present a formal protest and leave Augsburg. Finally the decree of the diet, promulgated in November, ordered the execution of the edict of Worms, the restoration of all church property, and the maintenance of the jurisdiction of the bishops. The duty of enforcing the decree was especially entrusted to the Reichskammergericht; thus by the processes of law the Protestant princes were to be deprived of much of their property, and it seemed probable that if they did not submit the emperor would have recourse to arms. For the present, however, fresh difficulties with France and an invasion by the Turks, who had besieged Vienna with an The immense army in the autumn of 1529, forced Charles league of to See also:

• MASK (Fr. masque, apparently from med. Lat. mascus, masca, spectre, through Ital. maschera, Span. mascara)

It was early in 1532, when faced with the necessity of resisting the See also:

• TURKISH

But the bishop of Munster and his friends crushed the one movement, and after interfering in the affairs of Denmark the Liibeckers were compelled to revert to their former mode of government. The outbreak of the war between the Empire and France in 1536 almost coincided with the enlargement of the league of Schmalkalden, the existence of which was prolonged for ten years. All the states and cities which subscribed to the confession of Augsburg were admitted to it, and thus a large number of Protestants, including the duchies of Wurttemberg and Pomerania and the cities of Augsburg and Frankfort, secured a needful protection against the decrees of the Reichskammergericht, which the league again repudiated. Among the new members of the confederation was Christian III., king of Denmark. About the same time (May 1536) an agreement between the Lutherans and the Zwinglians was arranged by See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

But this was not the only victory gained by the Protestants about this time. The citizens of Regensburg accepted their doctrines, which also made considerable progress in the Palatinate and in Austria, while the archbishop of Cologne, Hermann von Wied, and William, duke of See also:

• GELDERLAND (Guelders)
• GELDERLAND, GELDERS

With 'a new army he marched against the French, but suddenly in September 1544 he concluded the treaty of Crepy with Francis I. and left himself free to begin a new See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

The Lutheran cities of southern and central Germany, among them Strassburg, Augsburg, Ulm and Frankfort, now submitted to the emperor, while Ulrich of Wurttemberg and the elector palatine of the Rhine, Frederick II., followed their example. Having restored Roman Catholicism in the archbishopric of Cologne and seen Henry of Brunswick settled in his duchy early in 1547, Charles led his men against his principal enemies, Philip of Hesse and John Frederick, who had quickly succeeded in driving Maurice from his electorate. At See also:

• MUHLBERG

There was some resistance to the Interim, but force was employed against Augsburg and other recalcitrant cities, and soon it was generally accepted. Thus all Germany seemed to See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

An attempt at accommodation failed; Charles fled into Carinthia; and at one stroke all the advantages which he had gained by his triumph at Muhlberg wdre lost. Masters of the situation, Maurice and his associates met their opponents at See also:

• PASSAU

The peace of Augsburg can hardly be described as a satisfactory settlement. Individual toleration was not allowed, or only allowed in unison with exile, and in the treaty there was abundant material for future discord. After Maurice of Saxony had made terms with Charles at Passau he went to help Ferdinand against the Turks, but one of his allies, Henry II. of France, continued the war End of the in Germany while another, Albert Alcibiades, entered reign. upon a wild campaign of See also:

• PLUNDER

With regard to the religious question efforts were made to compose the differences among the Protestants; but while these ended in failure the Roman Catholics were gaining ground. Ferdinand sought earnestly to reform the church from within, and before he died in July 1564 the See also:

• COUNTER

Thus the Protestant cause was weakened just when it needed strengthening, as, on the other side, the Roman Catholics, especially Albert, duke of Bavaria, were eagerly forwarding the progress of the older faith, which towards the end of this reign was restored in the important See also:

• ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father)
• ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852– )

Just before this time much unrest in the north-west of Germany had been caused by the settlement there of a number of refugees from the Netherlands. Spreading their advanced religious views, these settlers were partly responsible for two serious outbreaks of disorder, At Aix-la-Chapelle the Protestants, not being allowed freedom of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

Augustus, the new elector of Saxony, Christian I., fell under the influence of John Casimir. The result was that Protestant princes, including the three temporal electors, united in placing their grievances before the emperor; obtaining no redress they met at See also:

• TORGAU

Rudolph resented this indignity very greatly, and until his death in January 1612 the relations between the brothers were very strained, but this mainly concerns the history of Hungary and of Bohemia, which were sensibly affected by the fraternal discord. By this time however, there were signs of substantial progress on the part of the great Catholic reaction, which was to have important consequences for Germany. This was due The mainly to the persistent zeal of the Jesuits. For a counter. long time the Protestants had absorbed the intellectual Reformastrength of the country, but now many able scholars non. and divines among the Jesuits could hold their own with their antagonists. These devoted missionaries of the church gave their attention mainly to the young, and. during the reign of Rudolph II. they were fortunate enough to make a deep impression upon two princes, each of whom was destined to See also:

• PLAY

Ferdinand was even more vigorous than Maximilian in defence of his religion. On assuming the government of Styria he set to work to extirpate Protestantism, which had made considerable progress in the Austrian arch-duchies. `e.rdtaand Soon afterwards he was selected by the Habsburgs as the heir of the childless emperor Matthias, and on coming to Vienna after the death of that sovereign in March 1619 he found himself in the midst of hopeless confusion. The Bohemians refused to acknowledge him as their king and elected in his stead Frederick V., the elector palatine of the Rhine, a son-in-law of the English king See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

The Spanish troops and the army of the League invaded the Rhenish Palatinate, which was defended by Frederick's remaining adherents, Christian of Brunswick and Count See also:

• ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM (1814–1865)

A little later, yielding to Maximilian and his colleagues in the League, Ferdinand dismissed Wallenstein, whose movements had aroused their resentment, from his service. A more inauspicious moment could not have been chosen for these two serious steps, because in the summer of 163o Gustavus See also:

• ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862)

He obtained sole command of the imperial armies, with the power of concluding treaties and of granting pardons, and he doubtless insisted on the withdrawal of the Edict of Restitution, .although this is not absolutely certain; in brief, the only limits to his power were the limits to the strength of his army. Having quickly assembled this, h9 drove the Saxons from Bohemia, and then marched towards Franconia, with the intention of crossing swords with his only serious rival, Gustavus Adolphus, who had left Munich when he heard that this foe had taken the field. The Swedes and their allies occupied Nuremberg, while the imperialists fortified a great See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

His prime object was, however, to secure for himself a great territorial position, possibly that of king of Bohemia, and it is obvious that his aims and ambitions were diametrically opposed to the ends desired by Ferdinand and by his Spanish and Bavarian allies. At length he set his troops in motion. Having gained some successes in the north-east of Germany he marched to succour the hardly pressed elector of Bavaria; then suddenly abandoning this purpose he led his troops back to Bohemia and left Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar in possession of the Danube valley. It is not surprising that a cry, louder than ever, now arose for his dismissal. Ferdinand did as he was required. In January 1634 he declared Wallenstein deposed from his command, but he was still at the head of an army when he was The league of Heilbronn and the death of Wallenstein. HISTORY] murdered in the following month at Eger. Commanded now by the king of Hungary, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand III., the imperialists retook Regensburg and captured Donauworth; then, aided by some Spanish troops, they gained a victory at See also:

• NORDLINGEN

The Saxon elector gained some additions of territory and promised to assist Ferdinand to recover any lands which had been taken from him by the Swedes, or by other foes. For this purpose a united army was to serve under an imperial general, and all leagues were to be dissolved. In spite of the See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

Under Count Torstenssen the Swedes defeated the imperialists at Breitenfeld in 1642; three years later they gained another victory at Jankau and advanced almost to Vienna, and then the last decisive move of the war was made by the great French general, See also:

• TURENNE, HENRI DE LA TOUR

The Thirty Years' War settled once for all the principle that men should not be persecuted for their religious faith. It is true that the peace of Westphalia formally recognized only Effects of the three See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

These acquisitions, which surpassed the advantages Gustavus Adolphus had hoped to win, gave Sweden the command both of the Baltic and of the North See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

For a moment the emperor Ferdinand appeared to have touched the ideal of Charles V. in so far, at least, as it related to Germany, but only for a moment. The stars in their courses fought against him, and at the time of his death he saw how far beyond his power were the forces with which even Charles had been unable to contend. The state of things which actually existed the peace of Westphalia made legal. So nearly complete was the independence of the states that each received the right to form alliances with any of the others, or with foreign powers, nominally on condition that their alliances should not be injurious to the emperor or to the Empire. Any authority which still lawfully belonged to the emperor was transferred to the diet. It alone had now the power of making laws, of concluding treaties in the name of Germany, and of declaring war and re-establishing peace. No one, however, expected that it would be of any real service. From 1663 it became a permanent body, and was attended only by the representatives of the princes and the cities; and from that time it occupied itself mainly with trifles, leaving the affairs of each state to be looked after by its own authorities, and those of the country generally to such fortunes as chance should determine. It would not have been strange if so shadowy an Empire had been brought altogether to an end. Some slight See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

The effect of the Thirty Years' War on the national life was disastrous. It had not been carried on by disciplined armies, National but by hordes of adventurers whose sole object was life. plunder. The cruelties they inflicted on their victims are almost beyond conception. Before the war the population was nearly twenty millions; after it the number was probably about six millions. Whole towns and villages were laid in ashes, and vast districts turned into deserts. Churches and schools were closed by hundreds, and to such straits were the people often reduced that See also:

• CANNIBALISM

After the Thirty Years' War it became fashionable for the heirs of principalities to travel, and especially to spend some time at the court of France. Here they readily imbibed the ideas of Louis XIV:, and in a short time nearly every petty court in Germany was a feeble See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

W. H.*) Ferdinand III. succeeded to the throne when the fortunes of his house were at a low ebb, and he continued the Thirty Years' War, not in the hope of re-establishing the Ferdinand Roman Catholic religion or of restoring the imperial ui. authority,' but of remedying as far as he could the havoc caused by his father's recklessness. After the conclusion of peace nothing happened to make his reign memorable. His son Leopold I. was a man of narrow See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

Under the pretence that when France gained the Austrian lands in Alsace she also acquired a right to all places that had ever been united to them, Louis began a series of systematic robberies of German towns and territories. " See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

He cared so little for Germany, as distinguished from Austria, that he allowed Louis to compel the diet to cede the imperial fortress of See also:

• LANDAU

In 1611 this.duchy fell by inheritance to the elector of Branden- burg, and by the treaty of Wehlau, in 1657, in the time of Frederick William, the Great Elector, it was declared independent of Poland. By skill, foresight and courage Frederick William managed to add largely to his territories; and in an age of degenerate sovereigns he was looked upon as an almost model ruler_ His son, Frederick, aspired to royal dignity, and in 1701, having obtained the emperor's assent, was crowned king of Prussia. The extravagance of Frederick drained the resources of his state, but this was amply atoned for by the rigid See also:

• ECONOMY

Maria Theresa, a woman of a noble and undaunted spirit, Charles appealed, with her infant son, afterwards Joseph II., yTh in her arms, to the Hungarian diet, and the enthusiastic Magyars responded chivalrously to her See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

He excited the admiration of the youth of Germany, and it was soon the fashion among the petty princes to imitate his methods of government. As a rule, they succeeded only in raising far larger armies than the taxpayers could afford to maintain. Maria Theresa never gave up the hope of winning back Silesia, and, in order to secure this object, she laid aside the jealousies of her house, and offered to conclude an alliance with France. 'Frederick had excited the envy of surrounding sovereigns, and had embittered them against him by stinging sarcasms. Not only France, therefore, but See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

In 1972 the necessities of Frederick's position compelled him to join Russia and Austria in the deplorable partition of Poland, Partition whereby he gained West Prussia, exclusive of See also:

• DANZIG, or DANTSIC (Polish Gdansk)

A more important See also:

• RESOLUTION

The contemptof Napoleon for the Empire was illustrated by his occupation of See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

The Con-federation of the Rhine, however, was a menace to Prussia too serious to be neglected; and Frederick William's hesitations were suddenly ended by Napoleon's contemptuous violation of Prussian territory in marching three French brigades through See also:

• ANSBACH

Austria, shorn of her fairest provinces, robbed of her oversea commerce, bankrupt and surrounded on all sides by the territories of the French emperor and his allies, seemed to exist only on sufferance, and had ceased to have any effective authority in Germany—now absolutely in the power of Napoleon, who proved this in 18x0 by annexing the whole of the northern coast as far as the Elbe to his empire. End of the Holy Roman Empire. Prussia defeated at Jena. his own responsibility, and by the pressure of public opinion supported by Queen See also:

• LOUISE [AUGUSTE WILHELMINE AMALIE LUISE] (1776-1810)

This, then, was the view that prevailed, and by the treaty of Chaumont (March 1, 1814) it was decided that Germany should consist of a confederation of sovereign states. The new constitution of Germany, as embodied in the nu]. Act of the congress of Vienna (June 9, 1815) was based on this The principle. It was the work of a special See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

As the central See also:

• ORGAN

In this duel the victory of Austria was soon declared. The Prussian government believed that the effective government The very completeness of the humiliation of Germany was the means of her deliverance. She had been taught self-respect by Frederick II., and by her great writers in literature and philosophy; it was felt to be intolerable that in politics she should do the bidding of a foreign master. Among a large section of the community patriotism became for the first time a consuming passion, and it was stimulated by the counsels of several manly teachers, among whom the first place belongs to the philosopher See also:

• FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN (originally HARTMANN) VON (1797-1879)
• FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814)

Revival of Germany. The federal diet. of Germany could only be secured by a separate understanding Wurttemberg, in Bavaria, the sovereigns and the chambers were at odds, united only in a common opposition to the central authority. To sovereigns whose nerves had been shattered by the vicissitudes of the revolutionary epoch these symptoms were in the highest degree alarming; and Metternich was at pains to exaggerate their significance. The " Wartburg The festival " of October 1818, which issued in nothing Wartburg worse than the solemn burning, in imitation of Dr fe1818' stival, Martin Luther, of Kamptz's See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

With Russia and, to a certain extent, Great Britain sympathetic, it was impossible to ignore their opposition. Moreover, Prussia was hardly prepared to endorse a policy of greatly strengthening the authority of the diet, which might have been fatal to the Customs Union of which she was laying the foundation. Metternich realized the situation, and yielded so gracefully that he gave his temporary defeat the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

The conception of the diet as a sort of See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

The lesser German princes, too, were See also:

• QUICK

Soon, in Baden, in Decrees worked smoothly, Germany was not likely to be troubled by revolutions. The period that followed was one, outwardly at least, of political stagnation. The Mainz Commission, though hampered by the jealousy of the governments (the king of Prussia refused to allow his subjects to be haled before it), was none the less effective enough in preventing all free expression of opinion; while at the universities the official " curators " kept Liberal enthusiasts in order. The exuberance of the epoch of Liberation gave place to a dull lethargy in things political, relieved only by the Philhellenism which gave voice to the aspirations of Germany under the disguise of enthusiasm for See also:

• GREECE

. into the monarchy by the settlement of 1815. The task was no easy one. There was no sense of national unity between the Catholics of the Rhine provinces, long submitted to the influence of liberal France, and the Lutheran squires of the mark of Brandenburg, the most stereotyped class in Europe; there was little in common between either and the Polish population of the province of Posen. The Prussian monarchy, the traditional champion of Protestant orthodoxy, found the new Catholic elements difficult to assimilate; and premonitory symptoms were not wanting of a revival of the secular contest between the spiritual and temporal powers which was to culminate after the promulgation of the See also:

• DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

In these circumstances it was decided to introduce a system of comparative free trade; raw materials were admitted free; a See also:

• UNIFORM

Finally, as a counter-move to the Austrian efforts to break up the Zollverein, the latter came to terms with the Steuerverein, which, on the 1st of January 1854, was absorbed in the Prussian system. Hamburg was to remain outside until 1883; but practically the whole of what now is Germany was thus included in a union in which Prussia had a predominating influence, and to which, when too late, Austria in vain sought See also:

• ADMISSION

He even thought the time opportune for See also:

• FINISHING

A number of deputies, belonging to different legislative assemblies, taking it upon them- selves to give voice to the national demands, had met at Heidel- berg,. and a committee appointed by them had invited all Germans who then were, or who had formerly been, members of diets, as well as some other public men, to meet at Frankfort for the purpose of considering the question of national reform. About 500 representatives accepted the invitation. They constituted themselves a preliminary parliament (Vorparlament), and at once began to provide for the election of a national assembly. It was decided that there should be a representative for every group of 50,000 inhabitants, and that the election should be by universal See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

Neither Austria nor Prussia was for some time in a position to thwart it, and the sovereigns of the smaller states were too much afraid of the revolutionary elements manifested on all sides to oppose its will. But the Germans had had no experience of free political life. Nearly every See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

GERMANY 867 and in order that a strong policy might be the more vigorously pushed forward, the emperor Ferdinand resigned, and was succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. The prospects of reform were not much more favourable in Prussia. The assembly summoned amid the revolutionary excitement of March met on the 22nd of May. De- mands for a constitutional system were urged with RePrussiaf®rm in . great force, and they would probably have been granted but for the opposition due to the violence of politicians out of doors. The aristocratic class saw ruin before it if the smallest concession were made to popular wishes, and it soon recovered from the terror into which it had been plunged at the outbreak of the revolution. Extreme antagonism was excited by such proposals as that the king should no longer be said to See also:

• WEAR

But the discussions in Brandenburg were no more successful than those in Berlin; and at last, on the 5th of December, the king dissolved the assembly, granted a constitution about which it had riot been consulted, and gave orders for the election of a representative chamber. About the time that the Prussian parliament was thus created, and that the emperor Ferdinand resigned, the Frankfort parliament succeeded in formulating the fundamental The vies. laws, which were duly proclaimed to be those of Ger- Lion of the many as it was now to be constituted. The principal conswu- clauses of the constitution then began to be discussed. tton. By far the most difficult question was the relation in which Austria should stand to the Germany of the future. There was a universal wish that the Austrian Germans should be included in the German state; on the other hand, it was felt that if all the various nationalities of Austria formed a united monarchy, and if this monarchy as a whole were included in the confederation, it would necessarily overshadow Germany, and expose her to unnecessary external dangers. It was therefore resolved that, although a German country might be under the same ruler as non-German lands, it could not be so joined to them as to form with them a single nation. Had the parliament adopted this resolution at once, instead of exhausting itself by pedantic disquisitions on the abstract principles of See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

These two parties attacked each other with constantly growing animosity, and in a few weeks sensible men outside the parliament gave up all hope of their dealing satisfactorily with the problem they had been appointed to solve. In the midst of these disputes the attention of the nation was occupied by a question which had arisen before the out- break of the revolutionary movements—the so-Schles- called " Schleswig-Holstein question " (q.v.). In 1846 Holstein. Christian VIII. of Denmark had officially proclaimed that Schleswig and the greater part of Holstein were indissolubly connected with the Danish monarchy. This excited vehement opposition among the Germans, on the ground that Holstein, although subject to the king of Denmark, was a member of the German confederation, and that in virtue of ancient treaties it could not be severed from Schleswig. In 1848 the German party in the duchies, headed by Prince Frederick of Augustenburg, rose against the Danish government. Frederick VII., who had just succeeded Christian VIII., put down the rebellion, but Prussia, acting in the name of the confederation, despatched an army against the Danes, and drove them from Schleswig. The Danes, who were supported by Russia, responded by blockading the Baltic ports, which Germany, having no See also:

• NAVY

The provisional government of the duchies Frankfort appealed from Prussia to the German regent; and assembly. the Frankfort parliament hotly took up its cause. A large majority voted an order countermanding the withdrawal of the Prussian troops, in spite of the protest of the ministry, who saw that it would be impossible to make it effective. The ministry resigned, but no other could be found to take its place; and the majority began to realize the situation. The central government depended ultimately on the armed support of the two great powers; to quarrel with those would be to ruin the constitution, or at best to play into the hands of the extreme revolutionists. On the 14th of September the question of the convention of XIalmoe again came up for discussion, and was angrily debated. The democrats called their adherents to arms against the traitors who were preparing to sell the Schleswig-Holsteiners. The Moderates took alarm; they had no See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

A reactionary ministry, headed by Prince Schwarzenberg, was then raised to power, constitutional party. It was resisted by the Austrian members, who were supported by the ultramontanes and the democrats, both of whom disliked Prussia, the former because of her Protestantism, the latter because of her bureaucratic system. Gagern's proposal was, however, adopted. Immediately after-wards the question as to the character of the executive was raised. Some voted that a directory of princes should be appointed, others that there should be a president, eligible from the whole German nation; but the final decision was that the headship of the state should be offered by the parliament to some particular German prince, and that he should bear the title of German emperor. The whole subject was as eagerly discussed throughout the country as in Frankfort. Austria firmly opposed the idea of Proposed a united German state, insisting that the Austrian empire. emperor could not consent to be subordinate to any other prince. She was supported by Bavaria, but on the other side were Prussia, Brunswick, Baden, Nassau, Meckleitburg and various other countries, besides the Hanseatic towns. For some time Austria offered no counter scheme, but she ultimately proposed that there should be a directory of seven princes, the chief place being held alternately by a Prussian and an Austrian imperial vicar. Nothing came of this suggestion, and in due time the parliament proceeded to the second See also:

• READING

All Germany awaited with anxiety the reply of Frederick William. It was thought not improbable that he would accept .the honour offered him, for in the early part of his reign he had spoken of German unity as enthusiastically as of liberty, and, besides, the opportunity was surprisingly favourable. The larger number of the North-German states were at least not unwilling to submit to the arrangement; and Austria, whose opposition in ordinary circumstances would have been fatal, was paralysed by her struggle with Hungary. Frederick William, however, whose instincts were far from democratic, refused " to pick up a crown out of the See also:

• GUTTER (O. Fr. goutiere, mod. gouttiere, from Lat. gutta, drop)

Two days after wards the three allies agreed upon a constitution which was in 'many respects identical with that drawn up by the Frankfort parliament. The functions of the executive were, however, extended, the electoral law was made less democratic, and it was decided that, instead of an emperor, there should be merely a supreme chief aided by a college of princes. This constitution was accepted by a number of states, which assumed the nameof "The Union," and on the 2oth of March 185o a parliament consisting of two houses met in Erfurt. Both houses accepted the constitution; and, immediately after they broke up, the members of the Union assembled in Berlin, and a provisional college of princes was elected. By that time, however, the whole situation of Germany had changed. In the autumn of 1849 Austria had succeeded, by the help of Russia, in quelling the Hungarian insurrection, and she was then in no Polley of mood to let herself be thrust aside by Prussia. Austria. Encouraged by her, Hanover and Saxony had severed themselves from the Union, and Saxony, Wurttemberg and Bavaria arrived at an understanding as to a wholly new constitution. Afterwards all four states, with several others, accepted the invitation of Austria to consider the propriety of re-establishing the Confederation. The representatives of the states favourable to this proposal, i.e, Austria, Luxemburg, Denmark and the four kingdoms, came together in Frankfort on the 4th of September 185o, constituted themselves a Plenum of the old diet and refused to admit the other states except under the terms of the act of 1815. Thus the issue to which the events of about a century had been pointing was apparently raised; Germany was divided into two hostile parties, one set of states grouping Distill*. themselves around Austria, another around Prussia. ance in A difficulty which arose in Hesse-Cassel almost Hesse-compelled the powers to bring their differences to the Cassel. test of war. In this small state the liberal movement of 1848 had been followed by reaction, and the elector ventured to replace See also:

• HASSENPFLUG, HANS DANIEL LUDWIG FRIEDRICH (1794—1862)

Hassenpflug, being detested by the chamber, dissolved it in June 185o; but the new one was not less hostile, and refused to sanction the collection of the taxes until it had considered the See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)