CONSTITUTION AND See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

According to the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

The senate consists of princes of the See also:

• BLOOD

Senators and deputies receive no See also:

• SALARY

The officials are not well paid, and are certainly numerous; while the manifold checks and See also:

• COUNTER

Italy has courts of cassation at Rome, See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Even the first See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

Notwithstanding the construction of new prisons and the trans-formation of old ones, the number of cells for solitary confinement is still insufficient for a See also:

• COMPLETE

-See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

Army.—The Italian army See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

But these figures do not represent the actual service of every able-bodied Italian. Like almost all " Universal Service " countries, Italy only drafts a small See also:

• PRO

But in 1901 the strength of the active army and reserve shows a marked diminution, which became accentuated in the year following. The table below indicates that up to 1907 the army, though always below its nominal strength, never absorbed more than a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

. 88,666 86,448 81,581 66,836 The serious condition of recruiting was quickly noticed, and the tabulation of each year's results was followed by a new draft law, but no See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

In consequence, in 1908, of 490,000 liable, some 110,000 actually joined for full training and 24,000 of the new 2nd category for See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

Florence, IX. Rome, X. Naples, XI. See also:

• BARI
• BARI (anc. Barium)

The army consists of 96 three-See also:

• BATTALION

The amount.spent is slight compared with the military expenditure of other countries. The Alpine frontier is fortified strongly, although the condition of the works was in many cases considered unsatisfactory by the 1907 Commission. The fortresses in the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

See also:

• MODERN

From 1885-1886 onwards, outlay on public works, military and colonial expenditure, and especially the commercial and financial crises, contributed to pro-duce annual deficits; but owing to drastic reforms introduced in 1894-1895 and to careful management the year 1898-1899 marked a return of surpluses (nearly £1,306,400). Financial Year. Revenue. Expenditure. Surpluses or Deficits. 1882 £52,064,800 £51,904,800 £+ 16o,000 1885-1886 56,364,000 57,304,400 - 940,400 1890—1891 61,600,000 64,601,600 -3,001,600 1895-1896 65,344,000 67,962,800 -2,618,800 1898-1899 66,352,800 65,046,400 +I,306,400 1899-1900 66,86o,800 65,323,600 +1,537,200 III 1900-1901 68,829,200 66,094,400 +2,734,800 1905-1906 77,684,100 75,143,300 +2,540,900 The revenue in the Italian financial year 1905-1906 (July 1, 1905 to June 30, 1906) was £102,486,108, and the expenditure £99,945,253, or, subtracting the partite di giro, £99,684,121 and £97,143,266, leaving a surplus of £2,540,855.2 The surplus was made up by contributions from every See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

On account of the inequalities still existing in the cadastral survey, in spite of the law of 1886 (see Agriculture, above), great differences are found in the land tax assessments in various parts of Italy. Land is not so heavily burdened by the government quota as by the additional centimes imposed by the provincial and communal authorities. On an average Italian landowners pay nearly 25 % of their revenues from land in government and local land tax. The buildings impost has been assessed since 1866 upon the basis of 12.50 % of " taxable revenue." Taxable revenue corresponds to two-thirds of actual income from factories and to three-fourths of actual income from houses; it is ascertained by the agents of the financial administration. In 1869, however, a third additional tenth was added to the previously existing additional two-tenths, and, unlike the tenths of the land tax, they have not been abolished. At present the main quota with the additional three-tenths amounts to 16.25 % of tax-able income. The imposts op incomes from personal estate (ricchezza mobile) were introduced in 1866; it applies to incomes derived from investments, industry or personal enterprise, but not to landed revenues. It is proportional, and is collected by See also:

• DEDUCTION (from Lat. deducere, to take or lead from or out of, derive)

The former apply principally to successions, stamps, registrations, mortgages, &c.; the latter to distilleries, breweries, See also:

• EXPLOSIVES

In regard to " expenditure," " movement of capital " refers to extinction of debt by See also:

• AMORTIZATION (derived through the French from Lat. ad, and mortem, to death)

Additional See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

The public debt at that date was composed as follows: Part I.—Funded Debt. See also:

• GRAND

Direct Liability of State. Notes issued Aggregate by State Paper State Notes. Bons de Caisse.1 Banks. Currency. Lire. Lire. Lire. Lire. 31st December 1881 940,000,000 .. 735,579,197 1,675,579,197 1886 446,665,535 .. 1,031,869,712 1,478,535,247 1891 341,949,237 1,121,601,079 1,463,550,316 1896 400,000,000 110,000,000 1,069,233,376 1,579,233,376 1899 451,431,780 42,138,152 1,180,110,330 1,673,680,262 1905 441,304,780 1,874,184 1,406,474,800 1,848,657,764 1 These ceased to have legal currency at the end of Igor; they were notes of 1 and 2 lire. Banks.—Until 1893 the juridical status of the Banks of Issue was regulated by the laws of the 3oth of See also:

• APRIL

At that time four limited companies were authorized to issue See also:

• BANK

. £402,216, 6,795 Part II.—Unfunded Debt. Debts separately inscribed in the Grand Livre . 10,042,027 Various railway obligations, redeemable, &c. . 56,375,351 Sicilian indemnities . 195,348 Capital value of annual See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

These notes are of 50, 100, 500 and moo lire; while the state issues notes for 5, to and 25 lire, the currency of these at the end of See also:

• OCTOBER

£119,351,834 low, but rose again in 1898 and 1899. In 1900 the maximum rate was 107.32, and the minimum 105.40, but in 1901 rates fell consider-ably, and were at par in 1902-1909. There are in Italy six clearing houses, namely, the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

The diminution was due to the law of the loth of April 1893 upon the banks of issue, by which they were obliged to liquidate the See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

Each province has a See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

The period for which both communal and provincial councils are elected is six years, one-half being renewed every three years. The ratio of local electors to population is in Piedmont 79%, but in Sicily less than 45 %. The ratio of voters to qualified electors tends to increase; it is highest in See also:

• CAMPANIA

The provincial administrations are entrusted with the See also:

• MANAGE

I Id.), an increase due in great part to the need for improved buildings, hygienic reforms and education, but also attributable in part to the manner in which the finances of many communes are administered. The total was in 1900, £49,496,193 for the communes and £6,908,022 for the provinces. The former total is more than double arid the latter more than See also:

• TREBLE (a doublet of " triple," three-fold, from Lat. triplus, triple; cf. " double " from duplus)

As.) See also:

• HISTORY

But unfortunately the traditions they have transmitted to us are often various and conflicting, while the only safe test of the See also:

• AFFINITIES

See also:

• CONWAY (Conwy, or Aberconwy)
• CONWAY, HENRY SEYMOUR (1721-1795)
• CONWAY, HUGH
• CONWAY, MONCURE DANIEL (1832–1907)
• CONWAY, SIR WILLIAM MARTIN (1856– )

How. far also the language or languages spoken in Bruttium and at certain points of Lucania, such as Anxia, differed from the Oscan of Samnium and Campania there is not enough evidence to show (see See also:

• BRUTTII

(5) Turning now to the languages which constitute the Italic group in the narrower sense, (a) Oscan; (b) the See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

2. It would follow, on the other hand, that what is called Oscan represented the language of the invading Sabines (more correctly Safines), whose racial affinities would seem to be of a distinctly more northern See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

But the natural limits of Italy are so clearly marked that the name came to be generally employed as a See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

It was separated from Apulia on the south by the See also:

• RIVER

It was in Italy that the military value of a network of roads was first appreciated by the Romans, and the See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

From Aequum Tuticum, on the Via Traiana, the Via Herculia ran to the south-east, crossing the older Via Appia, then south to Potentia and so on to join the Via Popilia in the centre of Lucania. The only highroad of importance which left Rome and ran eastwards, the Via ,See also:

• VALERIA, VIA

As to the roads leading out of Italy, from Aquileia roads diverged northward into See also:

• RAETIA (so always in inscriptions; in classical MSS. usually RHAETIA)

Thus began that system of mixed government, See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

The struggle of the Greeks and the Goths was carried on for fourteen years, between 539 and 553, when Teias, the last Gothic king, was finally defeated in a bloody See also:

• BATTLE

Ravenna, entrenched within her lagoons, remained a Greek city. Rome, protected by invincible See also:

• PRESTIGE

Wherever the Lombards had the upper hand, they placed the country under military rule, resembling in its general character what we now know as the feudal system. Though there is reason to suppose that the Roman laws were still ad-ministered within the cities, yet the Lombard code was that of the kingdom; and the Lombards being Arians, they added the oppression of religious intolerance to that of See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

These he handed over to the pope, of Rome. This donation of Pippin in 756 confirmed the papal see in the protectorate of the Italic party, and conferred upon it sovereign rights. The virtual outcome of the contest carried on by Rome since the year 726 with Byzantium and Pavia was to place the popes in the position held by the Greek exarch, and to confirm the See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

The pope was confirmed in his rectorship of the cities ceded by Aistolf, with the further understanding, tacit rather than expressed, that, even as he had wrung these provinces for the Italic people from both Greeks and Lombards, so in the future he might claim the protectorate of such portions of Italy, external to the kingdom, as he should be able to acquire, This, at any rate, seems to be the meaning of that obscure re-settlement of the peninsula which Charles effected. The kingdom of Italy, transmitted on his See also:

• DEATH

The Italians acknowledged eight See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

Through the almost impenetrable darkness and confusion we only discern this much, that Italy was powerless to constitute herself a nation. The discords which followed on the break-up of the Carolingian power, and the weakness of the so-called Italian emperors, who were unable to control the feudatories (marquises of See also:

• IVREA (anc. Eporedia)

Berengar imprisoned her upon the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

We have seen how the cities enclosed themselves with walls, and how the bishops defined their authority against that of the counts. Otto encouraged this revolution by placing the enclosures of the chief burghs beyond the jurisdiction of the counts. Within those precincts the bishops and the citizens were independent of all feudal masters but the emperor. He further See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

(married to See also:

• THEOPHANO (c. 956–991)

In Milan we hear for the first time the word Comune. In Milan the citizens first form themselves into a Parlamento. In Milan the archbishop organizes the hitherto voiceless, defenceless population into a community capable of expressing its needs, and an army ready to maintain its rights. To Heribert is attributed the invention of the Carroccio, which played so singular and important a part in the warfare of Italian cities. A huge See also:

• CAR (Late Lat. carra)

Their command of fleets gave them incontestable advantages, as when, for instance, Otto II. employed the Pisans in 98o against the Greeks in Lower Italy, and the Pisans and Genoese together attacked the Saracens of Sardinia in 1017. Still, speaking generally, the age of independence for the burghs had only begun when Heribert from Milan undertook the earliest organization of a force that was to become See also:

• PARAMOUNT (Anglo-Fr. paramont, up above, par el mont, up or on top of the mountain)

But it neither raised the prestige of the papacy, nor could it satisfy the Italians, who rightly regarded the Roman see as theirs. These German popes were short-lived and in-efficient. Their appointment, according to notions which defined themselves within the church at this epoch, was simoniacal; and during the long minority of Henry IV., who succeeded his father in ro56, the terrible Tuscan See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

Some See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

For the See also:

• SAKE

That cession, renewed after the death of Gregory to his successors, conferred upon the popes indefinite rights, of which they after-wards availed themselves in the consolidation of their temporal power. Matilda died in the year 1115. Gregory had passed before her from the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

By the See also:

• CONCORDAT (Lat. concordatum, agreed upon, from con-, together, and cor, heart)

But by far thq. greatest profit the Italians reaped was the emancipation of their Norman conquest of the Two Skilies. burghs. During the forty-seven years' war, when pope and emperor were respectively bidding for their alliance, and offering concessions to secure their support, the communes grew in self-reliance, strength and liberty. As the bishops had helped to free them from subservience to their feudal masters, so the war of investitures relieved them of dependence on their bishops. The age of real autonomy, signalized by the supremacy of consuls in the cities, had arrived. In the republics, as we begin to know them after the war of investitures, government was carried on by officers called consuls, varying in number according to See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

It will be perceived that the type was rather oligarchical than strictly democratic. Between the parlamento and the consuls with their privy council, or credenza, was interposed the gran consiglio of privileged burghers. These formed the aristocracy of the town, who by their wealth and See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

They recognized the fact that their blood was Latin as distinguished from Teutonic, and that they must look to ancient Rome for those memories which constitute a people's See also:

• NATIONALITY

The senate, composed of nobles, represented the credenza and the gran consiglio. The pope was unable to check this revolution, which is now chiefly interesting as further See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

These watchwords are said to have arisen in Germany during the disputed succession of the empire between 1135 and 1152, when the Welfs of Bavaria opposed the Swabian princes of See also:

• WAIBLINGEN

Swabian emperors. listened to the complaints of Como and See also:

• LODI

By their sufferings no less than by their deeds of daring, her citizens showed themselves to be See also:

• SUBLIME (Lat. sublimis, exalted)

But, in the interval between his second and third visit, a See also:

• LEAGUE

See also:

• NOVARA

They had humbled and utterly defeated their foreign See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

The signatories of the peace of Constance were divided between leaguers and imperialists. On the one side we find Vercelli, Novara, Milan, Lodi, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua, Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso, Bologna, Faenza, Modena, Reggio, Parma, Piacenza; on the other, Pavia, Genoa, See also:

• ALBA

These, in their turn, forced the nobles to leave their castles, and to reside for at least a portion of each year within the walls. By these measures the counts became citizens, the rural population ceased to rank as See also:

• SERFS, SERROS

The thirty years which elapsed between Frederick Barbarossa's death in 1190 and the coronation of his grandson Frederick II. in 1220 form one of the most momentous epochs in Italian history. Barbarossa, perceiving the advantage that would accrue to his house if he could join the crown of Sicily to that of Germany, and thus deprive the popes of their allies in Lower Italy, procured the marriage of his son Henry VI. to Constance, daughter of King Roger, and heiress of the Hauteville See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

This is the meaning of the three leagues, in the March, in the duchy of Spoleto and in Tuscany, which now combined the chief cities of the papal territory into allies of the holy see. From the Tuscan league Pisa, consistently Ghibelline, stood aloof. Rome itself again at this epoch established a republic, with which Innocent would not or could not interfere. The thirteen districts in their council nominated four caporioni, who acted in See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

The communes, no less than the popes, felt that they must prepare themselves for contest to the death with a power which threatened their existence. Already in 1218, the Guelphs of Lombardy had resuscitated their old league, and had been defeated by the Ghibellines in a battle near Ghibello. Italy seemed to See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

The French prelates went in silver chains to See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

The only gleam of success which shone on his ill See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

Emperor and king of Sicily, he was the natural enemy of popes, who could not tolerate so overwhelming a rival, After Frederick's death, the popes carried on their war for eighteen years against his descendants. The cause of his son Conrad was sustained in Lower Italy by See also:

• MANFRED (c. 1232–1266)

He defeated Manfred in a battle at Grandella near Benevento in 1266. Manfred was killed; and, when Conradin, a lad of sixteen, descended from Germany to make good his claims to the kingdom, he too was defeated at See also:

• TAGLIACOZZO

Mean- fines. while a new emperor had been elected, the prudent See also:

• RUDOLF (otherwise known as Basso NOROK and Gannon)

After the short papacy of See also:

• BENEDICT (BENEDICTUS)
• BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS (1804-1885)

Guelph democracy and industry idealize the pope. The banner of the church waves above the See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

The Italians learn through their discords at this epoch that they form one community. .The victory in the conflict practically falls to the hitherto unenfranchised plebeians. The elder noble families die out or lose their preponderancee. In some cities, as notably in Florence after the date 1292, it becomes criminal to be scioperato, or unemployed in industry. New houses rise into importance; a new commercial aristocracy is formed. Burghers of all denominations are enrolled in one or other of the arts or See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

Meanwhile the podesta still subsists; but he is no longer equal to the task d maintaining an equilibrium of forces. He sinks more and more into a judge, loses more and more the character of dictator. His ancient place is now occupied by a new functionary, no longer acting as arbiter, but concentrating the forces of the triumphant party. The See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

There is not a burgh of northern Italy but can trace the rise of a dynastic house to the vicissitudes of this period. In Tuscany, where the Guelph party was very strongly organized, and the commercial constitution of Florence kept the nobility in check, the communes remained as yet free from hereditary masters. Yet generals from time to time arose, the See also:

• CONTE

Ghibellines. Dante from his mountain solitudes See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

Castruccio Castracane was nominated by him duke of Lucca; and this is the first instance of a dynastic title conferred upon an Italian adventurer by the emperor. Castruccio dominated Tuscany, where the Guelph cause, in the weakness of King Robert, languished. But the adventurer's death in 1328 saved the stronghold of republican institutions, and Florence breathed freely for a while again. Can Grande della Scala's death in the next year inflicted on the Lombard Ghibellines a loss hardly inferior to that of Castruccio's on their Tuscan allies. Equally contemptible in its political results and void of historical interest was the brief visit of John of Bohemia, son of Henry VII., whom the Ghibellines next invited to assume their leadership. He sold a few privileges, conferred a few titles, and recrossed the Alps in 1333. It is clear that at this time the fury of the civil wars was spent. In spite of repeated efforts on the part of the Ghibellines, in spite of King Robert's supine incapacity, the imperialists gained no permanent advantage. The Italians were tired of fighting, and the leaders of both factions looked exclusively to their own interests. Each city which had been the See also:

• CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with " crate " and " creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of rocking, is scouted by the New English Dictionary)

Italy was settling town and turning her attention to home comforts, arts and literature. See also:

• BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI (1313-1375)

The first Italian who formed an exclusively Italian company was Alberico da Barbiano, a nobleman of Romagna, and founder of the Milanese house of Belgiojoso. In his school the great condottieri Braccio da Montone and See also:

• SFORZA
• SFORZA, CATERINA (1463-1509)

It must further be noticed that the rise of mercenaries was synchronous with a change in the nature of Italian despotism. The tyrants, as we have already seen, established themselves as captains of the people, vicars of the empire, vicars for the church, leaders of the Guelph and Ghibelline parties. They wereaccepted by a population eager for repose, who had merged old class distinctions in the conflicts of preceding centuries. They rested in large measure on the favour of the multitude, change and pursued a policy of sacrificing to their interests in type the nobles. It was natural that these self-made "See also:

• DES

The nobles, turned into courtiers, placemen, diplomatists and men of affairs, ended by preferring his authority to the alternative of democratic institutions. A lethargy of well-being, broken only by the pinch of taxation for war-See also:

• COSTS

She too, though twice married, died without issue, having at one time adopted Louis III. of See also:

• PROVENCE (Provincia, Proenza)

He became an Italian in See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

The last scions of the Della Scala family still reigned in Verona, the last Carraresi in Padua; the Estensi were powerful in Ferrara, the Gonzaghi in Mantua. Gian Galeazzo, partly by force and partly by intrigue, discredited these minor despots, pushed his dominion to the very See also:

• VERGE (Lat. virga, a rod)

Other communes which still preserved the shadow of independence, like Perugia and Bologna, began once more to dream of republican freedom under their sons, Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria. Giovanni, a monster of cruelty and lust, was assassinated by some Milanese nobles in 1412; and now Filippo set about rebuilding his father's duchy. Herein he was aided by the troops of Facino Cane, who, dying opportunely at this period, left considerable wealth, a well-trained band of mercenaries, and a widow, See also:

• BEATRICE

Once seated in the duchy of Milan, he displayed rare qualities as a ruler; for he not only entered into the spirit of the age, which required humanity and culture from a despot, but he also knew how to curb his desire for territory. The conception of confederated Italy found in him a vigorous supporter. Thus the limitation of the Milanese duchy under Filippo Maria Visconti, and its consolidation under Francesco Sforza, were equally effectual in preparing the balance of power to which Italian politics now tended. This balance could not have been established without the con-current aid of Florence. After the See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

In 1433 the Albizzi and the Medici came to open strife. Cosimo de' Medici, the chief of the opposition, was exiled to Venice. In the next year he returned, assumed the presidency of the democratic party, and by a system of corruption and popularity-See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

This ratification of the oligarchical principle, together with the establishment in 1311 of the Council of Ten, completed that famous constitution which endured till the extinction of the republic in 1797. Meanwhile, throughout the middle ages, it had been the policy of Venice to refrain from conquests on the Italian mainland, and to confine her energies to commerce in the East. The first entry of any moment made by the Venetians into strictly Italian affairs was in 1336, when the republics of Florence and St Mark allied them-selves against Mastino della Scala, and the latter took possession of Treviso. After this, for thirty years, between 1352 and 1381, Venice and Genoa contested the supremacy of the Mediterranean. Pisa's maritime power having been extinguished in the battle of Meloria (1284), the two surviving republics had no rivals. They fought their duel out upon the See also:

• BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. Boo-iopos=ox-ford, tradition-ally connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings)

The losses of men and money which the war of Chioggia, as it was called, entailed, though they did not immediately depress the spirit of the Genoese republic; signed her naval ruin. During this second struggle to the death with Genoa, the Venetians had been also at strife with the Carraresi of Padua and the Scaligers of Verona. In 1406, after the extinction of these princely houses they added Verona, Vicenza and Padua to the territories they claimed on terra firma. Their career of conquest, and their new policy of forming Italian alliances and entering into the management of Italian affairs were confirmed by the long dogeship of Francesco See also:

• FOSCARI, FRANCESCO (1373-1457)

Even when the schism was nominally terminated in 1415 by the council of Constance, the next two popes held but a See also:

• PRECARIOUS

Nicholas fixed his residence in Rome, which he began to rebuild and to fortify, determining to render the Eternal City once more a capital worthy of its high place in Europe. The Romans were flattered; and, though his reign was disturbed by republican See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

Between 1453 and 1492 Italy continued to be prosperous and tranquil. Nearly all wars during this period were undertaken either to check the growing power of Venice or to further the ambition of the papacy. Having become despots, the popes sought to establish their relatives in principalities. The word nepotism acquired new significance in the reigns of See also:

• SIXTUS

His own family was fortified by the marriage of his daughter to a son of Innocent VIII., which procured his son Giovanni's elevation'to the cardinalate, and involved two Medicean papacies and the future dependence of Florence upon Rome. VI. Age of Invasions.—The year 1492 opened a new age for Italy. In this year Lorenzo died, and was succeeded by his son, the vain and weak Piero; France passed beneath the personal control of the inexperienced Charles VIII.; the fall of See also:

• GRANADA
• GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588)

After some hesitation, Charles agreed to invade Italy. He crossed the Alps in 1495, passed through Lombardy, entered Tuscany, freed Pisa from the yoke of Florence, witnessed the expulsion of the Medici, marched to Naples and was crowned there—all this without striking a blow. Meanwhile Lodovico procured his nephew's death, and raised a league against the French in Lombardy. Charles hurried back from Naples, and narrowly escaped destruction at Fornovo in the passes of the Apennines. He made good his See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

upon the throne of France. As duke of See also:

• ORLEANS
• ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
• ORLEANS, DUKES OF
• ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
• ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
• ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
• ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
• ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
• ORLEANS, PHILIP I
• ORLEANS, PHILIP II

Spain, France, Germany, with their Swiss auxiliaries, had been summoned upon various pretexts to partake her provinces. Then, too late, patriots like See also:

• MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO (1469-1527)

It was with the Swiss that he hoped to effect this revolution; but the Swiss, now interfering for the first time as principals in Italian affairs, were incapable of more than adding to the already maddening distractions of the people. Formed for mercenary warfare, they proved a perilous See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

But these wars were fought for the most part by alien armies; the points at issue were decided beyond the Alps; the gains accrued to royal families whose names were unpronounceable by southern See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

In 1540 this pope approved of See also:

• LOYOLA, ST IGNATIUS OF (1491–1556)

Gian Pietro Caraffa, who was made pope in 1555 with the name of Paul IV., endeavoured to revive the ancient papal policy of leaning upon France. He encouraged the duke of See also:

• GUISE
• GUISE, HOUSE OF

In the reign of this pope Francis was released from his prison in See also:

• MADRID

The country was exposed to anarchy, settlement of which this had been the last and most disgrace- of Italy bySpatn. ful example. The Turks were threatening western Europe, and See also:

• LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546)

Charles V., it must be remembered, achieved his conquest and confirmed his authority far less as emperor than as the heir of Castile and Aragon. A Spanish See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

He seized the first opportunity of annexing See also:

• SALUZZO

Urban VIII., however, put in a claim to Ferrara, which, it will be remembered, had been recognized a papal fief in 1530. Cesare d'Este had to content himself with Modena and Reggio, where his descendants reigned as dukes till 1794. Under the same pontiff, the Holy See absorbed the duchy of Urbino on the death of Francesco Maria II., the last representative of Montefeltro and Della Rovere. The popes were now masters of a fine and compact territory, embracing no inconsiderable portion of Countess Matilda's See also:

• LEGACY (Lat. legatum)

Prolonged warfare with the Otto- and mans, who forced her to abandon Candia in 1669, spain. as they had robbed her of See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF