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METHODS AND MATERIALS] exactly as happened to suit each portion of his See also:design. Other See also:differences from the See also:modern See also:mechanical rules can easily be seen by a careful examination of the See also:Parthenon See also:frieze and other See also:Greek reliefs. Though the word " bas-See also:relief " is now often applied to reliefs of all degrees of See also:projection from the ground, it should, of course, only be used for those in which the projection is slight; " basso," " mezzo " and " See also:alto rilievo " See also:express three different degrees of salience. Very See also:low relief is but little used by modern sculptors, mainly because it is much easier to obtain striking effects with the help of more projection. See also:Donatello and other 1 5th-See also:century See also:Italian artists showed the most wonderful skill in their treatment of very low relief. One not altogether legitimate method of gaining effect was practised by some See also:medieval sculptors: the relief itself was kept very low, but was " See also:stilted " or projected from the ground, and then undercut all See also:round the outline. A 15th-century See also:tabernacle for the See also:host in the Brera at See also:Milan is a very beautiful example of this method, which as a See also:rule is not pleasing in effect, since it looks rather as if the figures were cut out in cardboard and then See also:stuck on (see RELIEF). The practice of most modern sculptors is to do very little to the See also:marble with their own hands; some, in fact, have never Sculptor's really learnt how to carve, and thus the finished assistants. statue is often very dull and lifeless in comparison with the See also:clay See also:model. Most of the See also:great sculptors of the See also:middle ages See also:left little or nothing to be done by an assistant; See also:Michelangelo especially did the whole of the See also:carving with his own hands, and when beginning on a See also:block of marble attacked it with such vigorous strokes of the See also:hammer that large pieces of marble flew about in every direction. But skill as a See also:carver, though very desirable, is not absolutely necessary for a sculptor. If he casts in See also:bronze by the cire perdue See also:process he may produce the most perfect plastic See also:works without touching anything harder than the modelling-See also:wax. The sculptor in marble, however, must be able to carve a hard substance if he is to be See also:master of his See also:art. Unhappily some modern sculptors not only leave all manipulation of the marble to their workmen, but they also employ men to do their modelling, colloquially termed " ghosts," the supposed sculptor supplying little or nothing but his See also:sketch and his name to the See also:work. The practice, however, is less See also:common nowadays than formerly,owing mainly to one or two exposures which brought the See also:matter sharply before the public. In some cases sculptors of ability who suffer under an excess of popularity are induced to employ aid of this See also:kind on See also:account of their undertaking more work than any one See also:man could possibly accomplish—a See also:state of things which is necessarily very hostile to the interests of true art. As a rule, however, the sculptor's scar pellino, though he may and often does attain the highest skill as a carver and can copy almost anything with wonderful fidelity, seldom develops into an See also:original artist. The popular admiration for pieces of See also:clever trickery in See also:sculpture, such as the carving of the open meshes of a, fisherman's See also:net, or a See also:chain with each See also:link See also:free and movable, or a See also:veil over and See also:half revealing the features of the See also:face, would perhaps be diminished if it were known that such work as this is invariably done, not by the sculptor, but by. the scarpellino. Unhappily at the See also:present See also:day there is, especially in See also:England, little appreciation of what is valuable in plastic art; there is probably no other civilized See also:country where the State does so little to give See also:practical support to the See also:advancement of monumental and decorative sculpture on a large See also:scale—the most important See also:branch of the art—which it is hardly in the See also:power of private persons to further.
It may here be well to say a few words on the technical methods employed in the See also:execution of medieval sculpture, which in the Medieval See also:main were very similar in England, See also:France and See also:Germany.
edieva When bronze was used—in England as a rule only for m
and the See also:effigies of royal persons or the richer nobles—the See also:metal
mateNals. was See also:cast by the delicate cire perdue process, and the whole
See also:surface of the figure was then thickly gilded. At See also:Limoges
in France a large number of sepulchral effigies were produced, especi-
ally between 1300 and 1400, and exported to distant places. These
were not cast, but were made of hammered (repousse—q.v.) plates of
See also:copper, nailed on a wooden core and richly decorated with champleve
489
enamels in various See also:bright See also:colours. See also:Westminster See also:Abbey possesses a See also:fine example, executed about 1300, in the effigy of See also: The See also:rest of the copper was gilt, and the See also:helmet was surrounded with a coronet set with jewels, which are now missing. One royal effigy of later date at Westminster, that of See also: Another material much used by medieval sculptors was See also:wood, though, from its perishable nature, comparatively few See also:early examples survive;' the best specimen is the figure of See also:George de Cantelupe (d. 1273) in See also:Abergavenny See also: 3, 1910), and See also:Albert Toft, Modelling and Sculpture (London, 1910). These volumes give in detail every process and method of the sculptor's See also:craft with a fulness to be found in no other works of their class in the English See also:language. 1 Other effigies from Limoges were imported into England, but no other example now exists in the country. 2 In the modern attempts to reproduce the medieval polychromy these delicate surface reliefs have been omitted; hence the painful results of such colouring as that in Notre-See also:Dame and the Sainte Chapelle in See also:Paris and many other " restored " churches, especially in France and Germany. On the tomb of See also:Aymer de Valence (d. 1326) at Westminster a See also:good See also:deal of the stamped gesso and coloured decoration is visible on See also:close inspection. One of the cavities of the See also:base retains a fragment of glass covering the painted foil, still brilliant and See also:jewel-like in effect. ' The See also:Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a magnificent See also:colossal wood figure of an See also:angel, not English, but Italian work of the 14th century. A large stone statue of about the same date, of See also:French workmanship, in the same museum is a most valuable example of the use of stamped gesso and inlay of painted and glazed foil. See also:HISTORY The following See also:general sketch of the history of sculpture is confined mainly to that of the middle ages and modern times. The See also:philosophy and See also:aesthetics of the subject—the relation of sculpture to the other arts and the nature of its See also:appeal to the emotions—are treated in the See also:article FINE ARTS. What is known as " classical" sculpture is dealt with under GREEK ART and See also:ROMAN ART; see also, for other allied aspects, See also:CHINA, Art; See also:JAPAN, Art; See also:EGYPT, Art; See also:BYZANTINE ART, and articles on METAL-WORK, See also:IVORY, WOOD-CARVING, &c.; the article See also:ARCHITECTURE and allied articles (e.g. See also:CAPITAL); and the articles on the several individual artists. In the 4th century A.D., under the rule of See also:Constantine's successors, the plastic arts in the Roman See also:world reached the lowest point of degradation to which they ever See also:fell. Early See also:Christian. Coarse in workmanship, intensely feeble in design, and utterly without expression or See also:life, the See also:pagan sculpture of that time is merely a dull and ignorant See also:imitation of the work of previous centuries. The old faith was dead, and the art which had sprung from it died with it. In the same century a large amount of sculpture was produced by Christian workmen, which, though it reached no very high See also:standard of merit, was at least far See also:superior to the pagan work. Although it shows no increase of technical skill or knowledge of the human See also:form, yet the See also:mere fact that it was inspired and its subjects supplied by a real living faith was quite sufficient to give it a vigour and a dramatic force, which raise it aesthetic-ally far above the expiring efforts of paganism. Apart from ivories (see IVORY), a number of large marble sarcophagi are the See also:chief existing specimens of this early Christian sculpture. In general design they are close copies of pagan tombs, and are richly decorated outside with reliefs. The subjects of these are usually scenes from the Old and New Testaments. From the former those subjects were selected which were supposed to have some typical reference to the life of See also:Christ: the See also:Meeting of See also:Abraham and Melchisedec, the See also:Sacrifice of See also:Isaac, See also:Daniel among the Lions, See also:Jonah and the See also:Whale, are those which most frequently occur. Among the New Testament scenes no representations occur of Christ's. sufferings;' the subjects chosen illustrate his power and beneficence: the See also:Sermon on the See also:Mount, the Triumphal Entry into See also:Jerusalem, and many of his miracles are frequently repeated. The Vatican and Lateran museums are rich in examples of this sort. One of the finest in the former collection was taken from the See also:crypt of the old See also:basilica of St See also:Peter; it contained the See also:body of a certain See also:Junius See also:Bassus, and See also:dates from the See also:year 359.2 Many other similar sarcophagi were made in the provinces of See also:Rome, especially See also:Gaul; and fine specimens exist in the museums of See also:Arles, See also:Marseilles and See also:Aix; those found in See also:Britain are of very inferior workmanship. Sculpture in the round, with its See also:suggestion of idol See also:worship which was offensive to the Christian spirit, was practically non-existent during this and the succeeding centuries, although there are a few notable exceptions, like the large bronze statue of St Peter 2 in the See also:nave of St Peter's in Rome, which is probably of 5th-century workmanship and has much of the repose, dignity and force of See also:antique sculpture. Italian plastic art in the 5th century continued to create in the spirit of the 4th century, especially reliefs in ivory (to a certain extent imitations of the later consular diptychs), which were used to decorate episcopal thrones or the bindings of See also:MSS. of the Gospels. The so-called See also:chair of St Peter, still preserved (though hidden from sight) in his great basilica, is the finest example of the former class; of less purely classical style, dating from about 550, is-the ivory See also:throne of See also:Bishop See also:Maximianus in See also:Ravenna See also:cathedral. Another very remarkable work of the ' A partial exception to this rule is the See also:scene of Christ before See also:Pilate, which sometimes occurs. 2 See See also:Dionysius, See also:Sac. Vat. Bas. Cryp., and See also:Bunsen, Besch. d. Stadt Rom (184o). s There is no ground for the popular impression that this is an antique statue of See also:Jupiter transformed into that of St Peter by the addition of the keys.5th century is the See also:series of small See also:panel reliefs on the doors of S. Sabina on the Aventine See also: The dogmatic unity of the See also:Catholic Church and its great monastic See also:system, with See also:constant interchange of monkish craftsmen between one country and another, were the chief causes of this widespread monotony of style. An additional See also:reason was the unrivalled technical skill of the early Byzantines, which made their See also:city widely resorted to by the artist-craftsmen of all Europe—the great school for learning any branch of the arts. The extensive use of the See also:precious metals for the chief works of plastic art in this early period is one of the reasons why so few examples still remain—their great See also:intrinsic value naturally causing their destruction. One of the most important existing examples, dating from the 8th century, is a series of colossal See also:wall reliefs executed in hard See also:stucco in the church of Cividale (See also:Friuli) not far from See also:Trieste. These represent rows of See also:female See also:saints bearing jewelled crosses, crowns and wreaths, and closely resembling in See also:costume, attitude and arrangement the See also:gift-bearing See also:mosaic figures of See also:Theodora and her ladies in S. Vitale at Ravenna. It is a striking instance of the almost petrified state of Byzantine art that so close a similarity should be possible between works executed at an See also:interval of fully two See also:hundred years. Some very interesting small plaques of ivory in the library of St See also:Gall show a still later survival of early forms. The central relief is a figure of Christ in See also:Majesty, closely resembling those in the colossal See also:apse mosaic of S. Apollinare in Classe and other churches ' Various dates have been assigned to these interesting reliefs by different archaeologists, but the costumes of the figures are strong See also:evidence that they are not later than the 5th century. of Ravenna; while the figures below the Christ are survivals of a still older time, dating back from the best eras of classic art. A See also:river-See also:god is represented as an old man holding an See also:urn, from which a stream issues, and a reclining female figure with an See also:infant and a cornucopia is the old Roman Tellus or See also:Earth-goddess with her ancient attributes.) While the countries of the See also:north could not altogether resist the rising See also:tide of Byzantinism, in Scandinavia, and to a great Norse and extent in England, the autochthonous art was not See also:Celtic in- altogether obliterated during the early middle ages. In flucnces in England, during the Saxon period, when stone buildings England• were rare and even large cathedrals were built of wood, the plastic arts were mostly confined to the use of gold, silver, and gilt copper. The earliest existing specimens of sculpture in stone are a number of tall See also:churchyard crosses, mostly in the See also:northern provinces and apparently the work of Scandinavian sculptors. One very remarkable example is a tall monolithic See also:cross, cut in See also:sandstone, in the churchyard of Gosforth in See also:Cumberland. It is covered with rudely carved reliefs, small in scale, which are of See also:special See also:interest as showing a transitional state from the worship of See also:Odin to that of Christ. Some of the old Norse symbols and myths sculptured on it occur modified and altered into a semi-Christian form. Though rich in decorative effect and with a graceful outline, this sculptured cross shows a very See also:primitive state of See also:artistic development, as do the other crosses of this class in See also:Cornwall, Ireland and See also:Scotland, which are mainly ornamented with those ingeniously intricate patterns of interlacing knotwork designed so skilfully by both the early Norse and the Celtic races? They belong to a class of art which is not Christian in its origin, though it was afterwards largely used for Christian purposes, and so is thoroughly See also:national in style, quite free from the usual widespread Byzantine influence. Of special interest from their early date—probably the nth century—are two large stone reliefs now in See also:Chichester cathedral, which are traditionally said to have come from the pre-See also:Norman church at Selsey. They are thoroughly Byzantine in style, but evidently the work of some very ignorant sculptor; they represent two scenes in the Raising of See also:Lazarus; the figures are stiff, attenuated and ugly, the pose very awkward, and the drapery of exaggerated Byzantine See also:character, with See also:long thin folds. To represent the eyes pieces of glass or coloured enamel were inserted; the treatment of the See also:hair in long ropelike twists suggests a metal rather than a stone design. The Romanesque period in art was essentially one of architectural activity. The spirit of the time did not encourage that individual thought which alone can produce a great development of sculpture and See also:painting. Thus the plastic art of the rrth and 12th centuries, which was still entirely at the service and under the rule of the Church, was strictly confined to conventional symbols, ideas and forms. It is based, not on the study of nature, but on the See also:late Roman reliefs. The treatment of the figures, though often See also:rude and clumsy, and sometimes influenced by Byzantine stiffness, is on the whole dignified, See also:solemn and serious, and See also:bent upon the expression of the typical, and not of the individual. The tympana of the porches, the capitals of columns and the pulpits 'and See also:choir-screens of the Romanesque churches, and, on a smaller scale, the ivory carvings for See also:book-covers and portable See also:miniature altars, provided the See also: Unlike the sculpture of the See also:Pisani and later artists, these early figures are thoroughly secondary to the architecture they are designed to decorate; they are evidently the work of men who were architects first and sculptors in a secondary degree. After the 13th century the See also:reverse was usually the case, and, as at the See also:west end of See also:Orvieto cathedral, the sculptured decorations are treated as being of See also:primary importance —not that the Italian sculptor-architect ever allowed his statues or reliefs to weaken or damage their architectural surroundings, as is unfortunately the case with much modern sculpture. In See also:southern Italy, during the 13th century, there existed a school of sculpture resembling that of France, owing probably to the Norman occupation. The pulpit in the cathedral of See also:Ravello, executed by Nicolo di Bartolommeo di See also:Foggia in 1272, is an important work of this class; it is enriched with very See also:noble sculpture, especially a large female head crowned with a richly foliated coronet, and combining lifelike vigour with largeness of style in a very remarkable way. The bronze doors at See also:Monreale (by Barisanus of See also:Trani), See also:Pisa and elsewhere are among the chief works of plastic art in Italy during the 12th century. The history of Italian sculpture of the best period is given to a great extent in the See also:separate articles on the Pisani and other Italian artists. Here it suffices to say that sculpture never became as completely subservient to architecture, as it did in the north, and that with Giovanni Pisano the almost classic repose and dignity of his See also:father Niccola's style gave way probably owing to northern influences—to an increased sense of life and freedom and dramatic expression. Niccola' stands at the close of the Romanesque, and Giovanni on the See also:threshold of the See also:Gothic period. During the 13th century Rome and the central provinces of Italy produced very few sculptors of ability, almost the only men of note being the See also:Cosmati. The power acquired by Germany under the Saxon emperors, upon whom had descended the See also:mantle of the Roman Caesars, was the chief reason that led to the great development of Romanesque art in Germany. It is true that, See also:German in the zlth century, Byzantine influences stifled the bronze work: spontaneous naivete of the earlier work; but about the end of the 12th century a new free and vital art arose, based upon a better understanding of the antique, and fostered by the rise of See also:feudalism and the prosperity of the cities. Next in importance to the numerous examples of German Romanesque ivory carvings are the works in bronze, in the technique of which the German craftsmen of the pre-Gothic period stand unrivalled: This is seen in the bronze See also:pillar reliefs and other works, notably the bronze gates of See also:Hildesheim Cathedral, produced by Bishop Bernward (d. 1022) after his visit to Rome. Hildesheim, See also:Cologne and the whole of the See also:Rhine provinces were the most active seats of German sculpture, especially in metal, till the 12th century. Many remarkable pieces of bronze sculpture were produced at the end of that period, of which several specimens exist. The bronze See also:font at See also:Liege, with figure-subjects in relief of various baptismal scenes from the New Testament, by See also:Lambert See also:Patras of See also:Dinant, cast about 1112, is a work of most wonderful beauty and perfection for its time; other fonts in See also:Osnabruck, by Matter See also:Gerhard, and Hildesheim cathedrals are surrounded by spirited reliefs, fine in conception, but inferior in beauty to those on the Liege font. Fine bronze candelabra exist in the abbey church of Combourg and at Aix-la-Chapelle, 3 The other finest examples of this early class of sculpture exist at Pisa, Parma, See also:Modena and Verona; in most of them the old Byzantine influence is very strong. Romanesque sculpture. the latter of about 1165. See also:Merseburg cathedral has a See also:strange realistic sepulchral figure of See also:Rudolf of See also:Swabia, executed about 1 too; and at See also:Magdeburg is a fine effigy, also in bronze, of Bishop See also:Frederick (d. 1152), treated in a more graceful way. The last figure has a peculiarity which is not uncommon in the older bronze reliefs of Germany: the body is treated as a relief, while the head sticks out and is quite detached from the ground in a very awkward way. One of the finest plastic works of this century is the choir screen of Hildesheim cathedral, executed in hard stucco, one rich with gold and colours; on its See also:lower See also:part is a series of large reliefs of saints modelled with almost classical breadth and See also:nobility, with drapery of especial excellence. In the 13th century German sculpture had made considerable artistic progress, but it did not reach the high standard of France. One of the best examples of the transition period from German Romanesque to Gothic is the " golden gate " of See also:Freiburg cathedral, with sculptured figures on the jambs after the French See also:fashion. The statues of the apostles on the nave pillars, - and especially one of the Madonna at the east end (1260-1270), possess great beauty and sculpturesque breadth. Of the same period, and kindred in style and feeling, are the reliefs on the eastern choir-screen in See also:Bamberg cathedral. France is comparatively poor in characteristic examples of Romanesque sculpture, as the time of the greatest activity coincides with the beginnings of the Gothic style, so Prance. that in many cases, as for instance on the porches of See also:Bourges and See also:Chartres cathedrals, Romanesque and Gothic features occur side by side and make it impossible to establish a clear demarcation between the two. Among the most important Romanesque monuments of the early 12th century are the sculptures on the See also:porch of the abbey church of Conques, representing the Last See also:Judgment; the somewhat barbaric tympanum of See also:Autun cathedral (c. 1130) ; and that of the church of See also:Moissac. During the 12th and 13th centuries the prodigious activity of the cathedral builders of France and their rivalry to outshine each other in the richness of the sculptured decorations, led to the glorious development that culminated in the full See also:flower of Gothic art. The facades of large cathedrals were completely covered with sculptured reliefs and thick-set rows of statues in niches. The whole of the front was frequently one huge See also:composition of statuary, with only sufficient purely architectural work to form a background and See also:frame for the sculptured figures. A west end treated like that of See also:Wells cathedral, which is almost unique in England, is not uncommon in France. Even the shafts of the doorways and other architectural accessories were covered with minute sculptured decoration,—the motives of which were often, especially during the 12th century, obviously derived from the metal-work of shrines and reliquaries studded with rows of jewels. The west facade of See also:Poitiers cathedral is one of the richest examples; it has large surfaces covered with foliated carving and rows of. colossal statues, both seated and See also:standing, reaching high up the front of the church. Of the same century (the 12th), but rather later in date, is the very noble sculpture on the three western doors of Chartres cathedral, with fine tympanum reliefs and colossal statues (all once covered with painting and gold) attached to the See also:jamb-shafts of the openings. These latter figures, with their exaggerated height and the long straight folds of their drapery, are designed with great skill to assist and not to break the main upward lines of the doorways. The sculptors have willingly sacrificed the beauty and proportion of each separate statue for the See also:sake of the architectonic effect of the whole facade. The heads, however, are full of nobility, beauty, and even See also:grace, especially those that are softened by the addition of long wavy curls, which give relief to the general stiffness of the form. The sculptured doors of the north and south aisles of Bourges cathedral are fine examples of the end of the 12th century, and so were the west doors of Notre Dame in Paris till they were hopelessly injured by " restoration." The early sculpture at Bourges is specially interesting from the existence in many parts of its original coloured decoration. Romanesque sculpture in England, during the Norman period, was of a very rude sort and generally used for the tympanum reliefs over the doors of churches. Christ in Majesty, the Harrowing of See also:Hell and St George and the See also:Dragon occur very frequently. Reliefs of the zodiacal signs were a common decoration of the richly sculptured arches of the 12th century, and are frequently carved with much power. The later Norman sculptured ornaments are very rich and spirited, though the treatment of the human figure is still very weak.' The best-preserved examples of monumental sculpture of the 12th century are a number of effigies of knights-See also:templars in the round See also:Temple church in London? They are laboriously cut in hard Purbeck marble, and much resemble bronze in their treatment; the faces are clumsy, and the whole figures stiff and heavy in modelling; but they are valuable examples of the military costume of the time, the See also:armour being purely chain-See also:mail. Another effigy in the same church cut in stone, once decorated with painting, is a much finer piece of sculpture of about a century later. The head, treated in an ideal way with wavy curls, has much See also:simple beauty, showing a great artistic advance. Another of the most remarkable effigies of this period is that of See also:Robert, See also:duke of See also:Normandy (d. 1134), in Gloucester cathedral, carved with much spirit in oak, and decorated with painting. The realistic trait of the crossed legs, which occurs in many of these effigies, heralds the near See also:advent of Gothic art. Most rapid progress in all the arts, especially that of sculpture, was made in England in the second half of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th century, largely under the patronage of Henry III., who employed and handsomely rewarded a large number of English artists, and also imported others from Italy and Spain, though these foreigners took only a secondary position among the painters and sculptors of England. The end of the 13th century was in fact the culminating period of English art, and at this time a very high degree of excellence was reached by purely national means, quite equalling and even surpassing the general See also:average of art on the See also:Continent, except perhaps in France. Even Niccola Pisano could not have surpassed the beauty and technical excellence of the two bronze effigies in Westminster Abbey modelled and cast by William See also:Torell, a See also:goldsmith and See also:citizen of London, shortly before the year 1300. These are on the tombs of Henry III. and See also:Queen Eleanor (wife of Edward I.), and, though the tomb itself of the former is an Italian work of the Cosmati school, there is no trace of foreign influence in the figures. At this time portrait effigies had not come into general use, and both figures are treated in an ideal way .3 The crowned head of Henry III., with noble well-modelled features and crisp wavy curls, resembles the conventional royal head on English coins of this and the following century, while the head of Eleanor is of remarkable, almost classic, beauty, and of great interest as showing the. ideal type of the 13th century. In both cases the drapery is well conceived in broad sculpturesque folds, graceful and yet simple in treatment. The casting of these figures, which was effected by the cire perdue process, is technically very perfect. The gold employed for the gilding was got from See also:Lucca in the shape of the current florins of that time, which were famed for their purity. Torell was highly paid for this, as well as for two other bronze statues of Queen Eleanor, probably of the same design.
Although the difference between fully See also:developed Gothic sculpture and Romanesque sculpture is almost as clearly marked as the difference between Gothic and Romanesque architecture
' In Norway and See also:Denmark during the 11th and 12th centuries carved ornament of the very highest merit was produced, especially the framework round the doors of the wooden churches; these are formed of large See also:pine planks, sculptured in slight relief with dragons and interlacing foliage in See also:grand sweeping curves,—perfect master-pieces of decorative art, full of the keenest inventive spirit and originality.
See See also:Richardson, Monumental Effigies of the Temple Church (Lon-See also:don, 1843).
' The effigy of See also: Gothic During the 13th century, the imagiers, or stone sculpture France. sculptors, worked See also:hand in hand with the great cathedral In builders. This century may indeed be called the golden See also:age of Gothic sculpture. While still keeping its early dignity and subordination to its architectural setting, the sculpture reached a very high degree of graceful finish and even sensuous beauty. Nothing could surpass the loveliness of the angel statues round the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, and even the earlier work on the facade of See also:Laon cathedral is full of grace and delicacy. See also:Amiens cathedral is especially rich in sculpture of this date,—as, for example, the noble and majestic statues of Christ and the Apostles at the west end; the sculpture on the south See also:transept of about 1260-.1270, of more developed style, is remarkable for dignity combined with soft beauty.' The noble See also:row of See also:kings on the west end of Notre Dame at Paris has, like the earlier sculpture, been ruined by " restoration," which has robbed the statues of both their spirit and their vigour. To the latter years of the 13th century belong the magnificent series of statues and reliefs round the three great western doorways of the same church, among which are no fewer than See also:thirty-four life-sized figures. On the whole, the single statues throughout this period are finer than the reliefs with many figures. Some of the statues of the Virgin and See also:Child are of extraordinary beauty, in spite of their being often treated with a certain mannerism—a curved pose of the body, which appears to have been copied from ivory statuettes, in which the figure followed the See also:curve of the See also:elephant's tusk. The north transept at Rheims is no less rich: the central statue of Christ is a work of much grace and nobility of form; and some nude figures—for example, that of St See also:Sebastian—show a knowledge of the human body which was very unusual at that early date. Many of these See also:Reims statues, like those by Torell at Westminster, are quite equal- to the best work of Niccola Pisano. The abbey church of St See also:Denis possesses the largest collection of French 13th-century monumental effigies, a large number of which, with supposed portraits of the early kings, were made during the rebuilding of the church in 1264; some of them appear to be " archaistic " copies of older contemporary statues.2 In the 14th century French sculpture began to decline, though much beautiful plastic work was still produced. Some of the reliefs on the choir screen of Notre Dame at Paris belong to this period, as does also much fine sculpture on the transepts of See also:Rouen cathedral and the west end of See also:Lyons. At the end of this century an able- sculptor from the See also:Netherlands, Claus Sluter (who followed the tradition of, the 14th-century school of See also:Tournai, which is marked by the exquisite study of the details of nature and led to the brilliant development of Flemish See also:realism), executed much fine work, especially at See also:Dijon, under the patronage of See also: The church of St Sebald, the Frauenkirche, and the west facade of St See also:Lawrence are lavishly decorated with reliefs and statues, very rich in effect, but showing the germs of that mannerism which grew so strong in Germany during the 15th century. Of special beauty are the statuettes which adorn the " beautiful fountain," which was formerly erroneously attributed to the probably mythical sculptor Sebald Schonhofer, and is decorated with gold and colour by the painter Rudolf.4 Of considerable importance are the statues of Christ, the Virgin, and the Apostles on the piers in the choir of Cologne cathedral, which were completed after 1350. They are particularly notable for their admirable polychromatic treatment. The reliefs on the high altar, which are of later date, are wrought in white marble on a background of See also:black marble. See also:Augsburg produced several sculptors of ability about this time; the museum possesses some very noble wooden statues of this school, large in scale and dignified in treatment. On the exterior of the choir of the church of See also:Marienburg See also:castle is a very remarkable colossal figure of the Virgin of about 1340-1350. Like the Hildesheim choir screen, it is made of hard stucco and is decorated with glass mosaics. The equestrian bronze See also:group of St George and the Dragon in the market-place at See also:Prague is excellent in workman-See also:ship and full of vigour, though much wanting dignity of style. Another fine work in bronze of about the same date is the effigy of See also:Archbishop Conrad (d. 1261) in Cologne cathedral, executed many years after his death. The portrait appeals truthful and the whole figure is noble in style. The military effigies of this time in Germany as elsewhere were almost unavoidably stiff and lifeless from the See also:necessity of representing them in See also:plate 3 See A. Kleinclausz, Claus Sluter (Paris, 1908). See See also:Baader, Beitrage zur Kunstgesch. Niirnberggs; Rettberg, Nurnberger Kunstleben (See also:Stuttgart, 1854), and P. J. Ree, Nuremberg and its Art to the end of the 28th Century (London, 1905). armour. The ecclesiastical See also:chasuble, in which priestly effigies nearly always appear, is also a thoroughly unsculpturesque form of drapery, both from its awkward shape and its See also:absence of folds. The See also:Gunther of Schwarzburg (d. 1349) in See also:Frankfort cathedral is a characteristic example of these sepulchral effigies in slight relief. In England, much of the fine 13th-century sculpture was used to decorate the facades of churches, though, on the whole, Axnxec- English cathedral architecture did not offer such great turn/ opportunities to the imagier as did that of France. sculpture A notable exception is Wells cathedral, the west end of which, dating from about the middle of the century, Englaad is covered with more than 600 figures in the round or in relief, arranged in tiers, and of varying sizes. The tympana of the doorways are filled with reliefs, and above them stand rows of colossal statues of kings and queens, bishops and knights, and saints both male and female, all treated very skilfully with nobly arranged drapery, and graceful heads designed in a thoroughly architectonic way, with due regard to the main lines of the building they are meant to decorate. In this respect the early medieval sculptor inherited one of the great merits of the Greeks of the best period: his figures or reliefs form an essential part of the design of the building to which they are affixed, and are treated in a subordinate manner to their architectural surroundings—very different from most of the sculpture on modern buildings, which frequently looks as if it had been stuck up as an afterthought, and frequently by its violent and incongruous lines is rather an impertinent excrescence than an ornament.'. See also:Peterborough, See also:Lichfield and See also:Salisbury cathedrals have fine examples of the sculpture of the 13th century: in the See also:chapter-See also:house of the last the spandrels of the wall-See also:arcade are filled with sixty reliefs of subjects from Bible history, all treated with much grace and refinement. To the end of the same century belong the celebrated reliefs of angels in the spandrels of the choir arches at See also:Lincoln, carved in a large massive way with great strength of decorative effect. Other fine reliefs of angels, executed about 126o, exist in the transepts of Westminster Abbey; being high from the ground, they are broadly treated without any high finish in the details' Purely decorative carving in stone reached its highest point of excellence about the middle of the 14th century—rather later, that is, than the best period of figure sculpture. Wood-carving (q.v.), on the other hand, reached its artistic See also:climax a full century later under the influence of the fully developed Perpendicular style. The most important effigies of the See also:lath century are those in gilt bronze of Edward III. (d. 1377) and of See also:Richard H. and his queen (made in 1395), all at Westminster. They are all portraits, but are decidedly inferior to the earlier work of William Torell. The effigies of Richard II. and See also:Anne of Bohemia were the work of See also:Nicolas See also:Broker and Godfred Prest, goldsmith citizens of London. Another fine bronze effigy is at See also:Canterbury on the tomb of the Black Prince (d. 1376); though well cast and with carefully modelled armour, it is treated in a somewhat dull and conventional way. The recumbent stone figure of Lady See also:Arundel, with two angels at her head, in Chichester cathedral is remarkable for its See also:calm peaceful pose and the beauty of the drapery. Among the most perfect works of this description is the alabaster tomb of See also:Ralph Nevill, first See also:earl of See also:Westmorland, with figures of himself and his two wives, in Staindrop church, See also:county See also:Durham (1426), removed, 1908, from a dark corner of the church into full See also:light, a few feet away, where its beauty may now be examined. A very fine but more realistic work is the tomb figure of William of Wykeham (d. 1404) in the cathedral 1 The sculpture on the Paris See also:opera house is a striking instance of this; and so, in a small way, are the statues in the See also:reredos at Westminster Abbey and that at Gloucester cathedral. Another is afforded by the figures of modern soldiers inserted in the beautifully-designed Gothic See also:Boer See also:War Memorial (by G. F. See also:Bodley, K.A.) set up in the cathedral close in See also:York. 2 On the whole, Westminster possesses the most completely representative collection of English medieval sculpture in an unbroken See also:succession from the 13th to the 16th century.at See also:Winchester. The cathedrals at See also:Rochester, Lichfield, York, Lincoln, See also:Exeter and many other ecclesiastical buildings in England are rich in examples of 14th-century sculpture, used occasionally with great profusion and richness of effect, but treated in strict subordination to the architectural background. The finest piece of bronze sculpture of the 15th-century is the effigy of Richard See also:Beauchamp (d. 1439) in his See also:family See also:chapel at See also:Warwick—a noble portrait figure, richly decorated with engraved ornaments. The modelling and casting were done by William See also:Austen of London, and the gilding and See also:engraving by a Netherlands goldsmith who had settled in London, named See also:Bartholomew Lambespring, assisted by several other skilful artists. The first See also:Spanish sculptor of real See also:eminence who need be considered is Aparicio, who lived and worked in the 1th century. His shrine of St Milian, executed to the order of Don sputa. Sancho the Great is in the monastery of Yuso, and is
a composition excellent, in its way, in design, grace and proportion: In the early medieval period the sculpture of northern Spain was much influenced by contemporary art in France. From the 12th to the 14th century many French architects and sculptors visited and worked in Spain. The cathedral of See also:Santiago de Compostella possesses one of the grandest existing specimens in the world of late 12th-century architectonic sculpture; this, though the work of a native artist, Mastei Mateo,3 is thoroughly French in style; as recorded by an inscription on the front, it was completed in 1188. The whole of the western portal with its three doorways is covered with statues and reliefs, all richly decorated with colour, part of which still remains. Round the central See also:arch are figures of the twenty-four elders, and in the tympanum a very noble relief of Christ in Majesty between Saints and Angels. As at Chartres, the jamb-shafts of the doorways are decorated with standing statues of saints—St See also: In the 14th century the silversmiths of Spain produced many works of sculpture of great size and technical power. One of the finest, by a Valencian called Peter Bernec, is the great silver See also:retable at See also:Gerona cathedral. It is divided into three tiers of statuettes and reliefs, richly framed in canopied niches; all of silver, partly cast and partly hammered. In the 15th century an infusion of German influence was mixed with that of France, as may be seen in the very rich sculptural decorations which adorn the main See also:door of See also:Salamanca cathedral, the facade of S. Juan at See also:Valladolid, and the church and cloisters of S. Juan de los Reyes at See also:Toledo, perhaps the most gorgeous examples of architectural sculpture in the world. These were executed between 141'8 and 1425 by a group of clever sculptors, among whom A. and F. See also:Diaz, A. F. de Sahagun, A. See also:Rodriguez and A. Gonzales were perhaps the chief. The marble altar-piece of the grand altar at Tarragona was begun 2 A kneeling portrait-statue of Mateo is introduced at the back of the central See also:pier. This figure is now much revered by the Spanish peasants, and the head is partly worn away with kisses. by P. Juan in 1426 and completed by G. De La Mota. The carved foliage of- this period is of especial beauty and spirited execution; realistic forms of plant-growth are mingled with other more conventional foliage in the most masterly manner. The very noble bronze See also:monument of See also:Archdeacon Pelayo (d. 1490) in See also:Burgos cathedral was probably the work of See also:Simon of Cologne, who was also architect of the Certosa at Miraflores, 2 m. from Burgos. The church of this monastery contains two of the most magnificently rich monuments in the world, especially the altar-tomb of King John II. and his queen by Gil de Siloea perfect marvel of rich alabaster canopy-work and intricate under-cutting. The effigies have little merit. From the 16th century onwards wood was a favourite material with Spanish sculptors, who employed it for devotional and See also:historical groups realistically treated, such as the " Scene from Taking of See also:Granada" by El Maestre Rodrigo, and even for See also:portraiture, as in the Bust of Turiano by Alonzo Berruguete (148o-1561). During the 14th century Florence and the neighbouring cities were the chief centres of Italian sculpture, and there numerous sculptors of successively increasing artistic Gothic power lived and worked, till in the 15th century the sculpture city in "sly. had become the aesthetic capital of the world. But the Gothic sculptor's activity was by no means confined to See also:Tuscany, for in northern Italy various See also:schools of sculpture existed in the 14th century, especially at Verona and See also:Venice, whose art differed widely from the contemporary art of Tuscany; but Milan and See also:Pavia, on the other hand, possessed sculptors who followed closely the style of the Pisani. The chief examples of the latter class are the magnificent shrine of St See also:Augustine in the cathedral of Pavia, dated 1362, and the some-what similar shrine of Peter the See also:Martyr (1339), by Balduccio of Pisa, in the church of S. Eustorgio at Milan, both of white marble, decorated in the most lavish way with statuettes and subject reliefs. Many other fine pieces of the See also:Pisan school exist in Milan. The well-known tombs of the See also:Scaliger family at Verona show a more native style of design, and in general form, though not in detail, suggest the influence of transalpine Gothic. In Venice the northern and almost French character of much of the early 15th-century sculpture is more strongly marked, especially in the noble figures in high relief which decorate the lower See also:story and angles of the See also:doge's See also:palace;' these are mostly the work of a Venetian named Bartolomeo Bon. A magnificent marble tympanum relief by Bon can be seen at the Victoria and Albert Museum; it has a noble colossal figure of the Madonna, who shelters under her mantle a number of kneeling worshippers; the background is enriched with foliage and heads, forming a" See also:Jesse See also:tree," designed with great decorative skill. The cathedral of See also:Como, built at the very end of the 15th century, is decorated with good sculpture of almost Gothic style, but on the whole rather dull and mechanical in detail, like much of the sculpture in the extreme north of Italy. A large quantity of rich sculpture was produced in See also:Naples during the 14th century, but of no great merit either in design or in execution. The lofty monument of King Robert (1350), behind the high altar of S. Chiara, and other tombs in the same church are the most conspicuous works of this period. The extraordinary poverty in the See also:production of sculpture in Rome during the 14th century was remarkable. 'The clumsy effigies at the north-east of S. Maria in Trastevere are striking examples of the degradation of the plastic art there about the year 1400; and it was not till nearly the middle of the century that the arrival of able Florentine sculptors, such as Filarete, Mino da See also:Fiesole, and the Pollaiuoli, initiated a brilliant era of artistic activity, which, however, for about a century continued to depend on the presence of sculptors from Tuscany and other northern provinces. It was not, in fact, till the period of full decadence had begun that Rome itself produced any notable artists. In Florence, the centre of artistic activity during the 15th as well as the 14th century, See also:Giotto not only inaugurated the 1 See Ruskin, Stones of Venice; and Mothes, Gesch. der Bauk. u. Bildh. Venedigs (See also:Leipzig, 1859) ; also H. v. d. See also:Gabelentz, Mittelaltert. Plasiik in Venedig (Leipzig, 1902).modern era of painting, but in his relief sculpture, and more particularly by the influence he exercised upon Andrea Pisano, carried the art of sculpture beyond the point where it had been left by Giovanni Pisano. In Andrea we find something of Niccola's classic dignity grafted on to Giovanni's close observation of nature. His greatest works are the bronze south gate of the See also:Baptistery, and some of the reliefs on Giotto's Campanile. The last great master of the Gothic period is Andrea di Cione, better known as See also:Orcagna (1308? to 1368), who, like Giotto, achieved fame in the three sister arts of painting, sculpture and architecture. His wonderful tabernacle at Or See also:San Michele is a noble testimony to his efficiency in the three arts and to his early training as a goldsmith. Very beautiful sepulchral effigies in low relief were produced in many parts of Italy, especially at Florence. The tomb of Lorenzo Acciaioli, in the Certosa near Florence, is a fine example of about the year 1400, which has absurdly been attributed to Donatello. The similarity between the plastic arts of Athens in the 5th or 4th century n.c. and of Florence in the 15th century is not one of See also:analogy only. Though free from any See also:touch of copyism, there are many points in the works of such men as Donatello, Luca della Robbia, and See also:Antonio Pisano which strongly recall the sculpture of ancient See also:Greece, and suggest that, if a sculptor of the later Phidian school had been surrounded by the same types of face and costume as those among which the Italians lived, he would have produced plastic works closely resembling those of the great Florentine masters. Lorenzo See also:Ghiberti may be called the first of the great sculptors of the See also:Renaissance. But between him and Orcagna stands another master, the Sienese, Jacopo della Quercia 2 (1391-1438) who, although in some See also:minor traits connected with the Gothic school, heralds at this early date the boldest and most vigorous and original achievements of two generations hence. Indeed, Jacopo, whose chief works are the Fonte Gaja at See also:Siena (now reconstructed) and the reliefs on the gate of S. Petronio at See also:Bologna, stands in his strong See also:muscular treatment of the human figure nearer to Michelangelo than to his Gothic pre-cursors and contemporaries. Contemporaneously with Ghiberti, the sculptor of the world-famed baptistery gates, and with Donatello, and to a certain extent influenced by them, worked some men who, like Ciuffagni, were still essentially Gothic in their style, or, like Nanni di Banco, retained unmistakable traces of the earlier manner. Luca della Robbia, the founder of a whole See also:dynasty of sculptors in glazed terra-See also:cotta, with his classic purity of style and sweetness of expression, came next in order. Unsensual beauty elevated by religious spirit was attained in the highest degree by Mino da Fiesole, the two Rossellini, Benedetto da Maiano, Desiderio da Settignano and other sculptors more or less directly influenced by Donatello. Through them the tomb monument received the definite form which it retained throughout the Renaissance period. Two of the noblest equestrian statues the world has probably ever seen are the Gattamelata statue at See also:Padua by Donatello and the statue of See also:Colleoni at Venice by Verrocchio and See also:Leopardi. A third, which was probably of equal beauty, was modelled in clay by Leonardo da See also:Vinci, but it no longer exists. Among other sculptors who flourished in Italy about the middle of the 15th century, are the Lucchese Matteo Civitali; See also:Agostino di Duccio (1418-c. 1481), whose See also:principal works are to be found at See also:Rimini and See also:Perugia; the bronze-worker Bertoldo di Giovanni (1420-' 1491); Antonio del See also:Pollaiuolo, the author of the tombs of popes See also:Sixtus IV. and See also:Innocent VIII. at St Peter's in Rome; and See also:Francesco Laurana (1424-1501?), a Dalmatian who worked under See also:Brunelleschi and left many traces of his activity in Naples (Triumphal Arch), See also:Sicily and southern France. Finally came Michelangelo, who raised the sculpture of the modern world to its highest See also:pitch of magnificence, and at the same time sowed the seeds of its rapidly approaching decline; the head of his See also:David at Florence is a work of unrivalled force and dignity. His rivals and imitators, See also:Baccio See also:Bandinelli, Giacomo della Porta, Montelupo, See also:Ammanati and Vincenzo de' See also:Rossi (pupils of Bandinelli) and others, copied and exaggerated his faults 2 See Carl See also:Cornelius, Jacopo See also:delta Quercia (See also:Halle a. S., 1896). 24 without possessing a touch of his gigantic genius. In other parts of Italy, such as Pavia, the traditions of the 15th century lasted longer, though gradually fading. The statuary and reliefs which make the Certosa near Pavia one of the most gorgeous buildings in the world are free from the influence of Michelangelo, which at Florence and Rome was overwhelming. Though much of the sculpture was begun in the second half of the 15th century, the greater part was not executed till much later. The magnificent tomb of the founder, Giovanni Galeazzo See also:Visconti, was not completed till about 1560, and is a gorgeous example of the style of the Renaissance grown weak from excess of richness and from loss of the simple purity of the art of the 15th century. Everywhere in this wonderful building the See also:fault is the same; and the growing love of luxury and display, which was the curse of the time, is reflected in the plastic decorations of the whole church. The old religious spirit had died out and was succeeded by unbelief or by an affected revival of paganism. Monuments to ancient See also:Romans, such as those to the two Plinys on the facade of Como cathedral, or " heroa " to unsaintly mortals, such as that erected at Rimini by Sigismondo Pandolfo in See also:honour of Isotta,1 grew up side by side with shrines and churches dedicated to the saints. We have seen how the youthful vigour of the Christian faith vivified for a time the dry bones of expiring classic art, and now the decay of this same belief brought with it the destruction of all that was most valuable in medieval sculpture. Sculpture, like the other arts, became the See also:bond-slave of the rich, and ceased to be the natural expression of a whole See also:people. Though for a long time in Italy great technical skill continued to exist, the vivifying spirit was dead, and at last a dull See also:scholasticism or a riotous extravagance of design became the leading characteristics. The 16th century was one of transition to this state of degradation, but nevertheless produced many sculptors of great ability who were not wholly crushed by 'the declining See also:taste of their time. John of See also:Douai (1524-1608), usually known as Giovanni da Bologna, one of the ablest, lived and worked almost entirely in Italy. His bronze statue of See also:Mercury flying upwards, in the Uffizi, one of his finest works, is full of life and See also:movement. By him also is the " Carrying off of a See also:Sabine Woman " in the Loggia de' See also:Lanzi. His great fountain at Bologna, with two tiers of boys and mermaids, surmounted by a colossal statue of See also:Neptune, a very noble work, is composed of architectural features combined with sculpture, and is remarkable for beauty of proportion. He also cast the fine bronze equestrian statue of Cosimo de' See also:Medici at Florence and the very richly decorated west door of Pisa cathedral, the latter notable for the overcrowding of its ornaments and the want of sculpturesque dignity in the figures; it is a feeble imitation of Ghiberti's noble production. One of Giovanni's best works, a group of two nude figures fighting, is now lost. A fine copy in See also:lead existed till recently in the front quadrangle of Brasenose See also:College, See also:Oxford, of which it was the chief ornament. In 1881 it was sold for old lead by the principal and See also:fellows of the college, and was immediately melted down by the plumber who bought it—an irreparable loss, as the only other existing copy is very inferior; the destruction was an utterly inexcusable See also:act of vandalism. The sculpture on the western facade of the church at See also:Loreto and the elaborate bronze gates of the See also:Santa Casa are works of great technical merit by See also:Girolamo See also:Lombardo and his sons, about the middle of the 16th century. Benvenuto See also:Cellini (1500-1569), though in the main greater as goldsmith than as sculptor, produced one work of great beauty and dignity—the bronze See also:Perseus in the Loggia de' Lanzi at Florence. His large bust of Cosimo de' Medici in the Bargello is mean and See also:petty in style. A number of very clever statues and groups in terra-cotta were modelled by Antonio Begarelli of Modena (d. 1565), and were enthusiastically admired by Michelangelo; the finest are a " Pieta " in S. Maria See also:Pomposa and a large " Descent from the Cross " in S. Francesco, both at Modena. The colossal bronze seated statue of See also:Julius III. at Perugia, cast in 1555 by Vincenzio Danti, is one of the best portrait-figures of the time. 1 See Yriarte, Rimini au X Ve siecle (Paris, 1880). The latter part of the 15th century in France was a time of transition from the medieval style, which had gradually been deteriorating, to the more florid and realistic taste of the Renaissance. To this period belong a number The Re-
of rich reliefs and statues on the choir-screen ninalssFranceaace .
of Chartres cathedral. Those on the screen at
Amiens are later still, and exhibit the rapid advance of the new style.
The transition from the Gothic to the Renaissance is to be noted in many tomb monuments of the second half of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, notably in Rouland de Roux's magnificent tomb of the cardinals of See also:Amboise at Rouen cathedral. Italian motifs are See also:paramount in the great tomb of See also: One of the most pleasing and graceful works of this period, thoroughly Italian in style, is the marble group of the " Three See also:Graces " bearing on their heads an urn containing the See also:heart of Henry II., executed in 156o by Germain Pilon for See also:Catherine de Medicis. The monument of Catherine and Henry II. at St Denis, by the same sculptor, is an inferior and coarser work. Maitre See also:Ponce, probably the same as the Italian Ponzio Jacquio, chiselled the noble monument of Albert of See also:Carpi (1535), now in the Louvre. Another very fine portrait effigy of about 1570, a recumbent figure in full armour of the duke of See also:Montmorency, preserved in the Louvre, is the work of See also:Barthelemy See also:Prieur. See also:Francois Duquesnoy of See also:Brussels (1594-1644), usually known as Il Fiammingo, was a clever sculptor, thoroughly French in style, though he mostly worked in Italy. His large statues are very poor, but his reliefs in ivory of boys and cupids are modelled with wonderfully soft realistic power and graceful See also:fancy.
To these sculptors should be added Jacques See also:Sarrazin, well known for the colossal yet elegant See also:caryatides for the grand See also:pavilion of the Louvre; and Francois Angier, the sculptor of the splendid See also:mausoleum of the duc de Montmorency.
In the Netherlands the great development of painting was not accompanied by a parallel movement in plastic art. Of the few monuments that claim See also:attention, The
Nefherr
we must mention the bronze tomb of See also:Mary of See also:Burgundy Jas. at Notre-Dame, See also:Bruges, executed about 1495 by See also:Jan
de See also:Baker, and the less remarkable though technically more See also:complete See also:companion tomb of See also: But in the latter half of this century it began to choke these national characteristics, and led to somewhat theatrical and conventional classicism and mannerism.
One speciality of the 15th century was the production of an immense number of wooden altars and reredoses, painted and gilt in the most gorgeous way and covered with subject-reliefs and statues, the former often treated in a very pictorial style.' Wooden screens, stalls, See also:tabernacles and other church-fittings of the greatest elaboration and clever workmanship were largely produced in Germany at the same time, and on into the 16th century? Jorg Syrlin, one of the most able of these sculptors in wood, executed the gorgeous choir-stalls in See also:Ulm cathedral, richly decorated with statuettes and canopied work, between 1469 and 1474; his son and namesake sculptured the elaborate stalls in See also:Blaubeuren church of 1496 and the great pulpit in Ulm cathedral. Another exceptionally important work of this type is the magnificent altar at St Wolfgang in Upper See also:Austria, carved by the Tirolese, See also:Michael Pacher, in 148i. See also:Veit See also:Stoss of See also:Cracow, who later settled in Nuremberg, a man of See also:bad character, was a most skilful sculptor in wood; he carved the high altar, the tabernacle and the stalls of the Frauenkirche at Cracow, between 1472 and 1494. One of his finest works is a large piece of wooden panelling, nearly 6 ft. square, carved in 1495, with central reliefs of the See also:Doom and the Heavenly Host, framed by minute reliefs of scenes from Bible history. It is now in the Nuremberg See also:town-See also: He also made the great tabernacle for the Host, 8o ft. high, covered with statuettes, in Ulm cathedral, and the very spirited " Stations of the Cross " on the road to the Nuremberg See also:cemetery. The See also:Vischer family of Nuremberg for three generations were among the ablest sculptors in bronze during the 15th and 16th centuries. See also:Hermann Vischer the elder worked mostly between 1450 and 1505, following the earlier medieval traditions, but without the originality of his son, Peter Vischer. Next to Nuremberg, the chief centres of bronze sculpture were Augsburg and See also:Lubeck. See also:Innsbruck possesses one of the finest series of bronze statues of the first half of the 16th century, namely twenty-eight colossal figures round the tomb of the See also:emperor See also:Maximilian, which stands in the centre of the nave, representing a succession of heroes and ancestors of the emperor. The first of the statues which was completed cost 3000 florins, and so Maximilian invited the help of Peter Vischer, whose skill was greater and whose work less expensive than that of the local craftsmen. Most of them, however, were executed by sculptors of whom little is now known. They differ much in style, though all are of great technical merit. The finest is an ideal statue of King See also:Arthur of Britain, in plate armour of the 14th or early 15th century, very remarkable for the nobility of the face and pose. That of See also:Theodoric is also a very fine ' This class of large wooden retable was much imitated in Spain and Scandinavia. The See also:metropolitan cathedral of See also:Roskilde in Den-See also:mark possesses a very large and magnificent example covered with subject reliefs enriched with gold and colours. '' See See also:Waagen, Kunst and Kiinstler in Deutschl. (Leipzig, 1843-1845)conception. Both are wrongly said to be the work of Peter Vischer himself. Of the others, the best, nine in number, are by Master Gilg. The others, which range from stiffness to exaggerated realism, are executed by inferior workers.
In the latter part of the 16th century the influence of the later Italian Renaissance becomes very apparent, and many elaborate works in bronze were produced, especially at Augsburg, where See also:Hubert Gerhard cast the fine " See also:Augustus fountain " in 1593, and See also:Adrian de Vries made the " See also:Hercules fountain " in 1599; both were influenced by the style of Giovanni di Bologna, as shown in his magnificent fountain at Bologna.
At the beginning of the 16th century sculpture in England was entering upon a period of rapid decadence, and to some extent had lost its native individuality. The finest series of statues of this period are those of life-size high up on the walls of Henry VII.'s chapel at Westminster and others over the various minor altars. These ninety-five figures, which represent saints and doctors of the church, vary very much in merit: some show German influence, others that of Italy, while a third class are, as it were, " archaistic " imitations of older English sculpture .3 In some cases the heads and general pose are graceful, and the drapery dignified, but in the main they are coarse both in design and in workmanship compared with the better plastic art of the 13th and 14th centuries. This decadence of English sculpture caused Henry VII. to invite the Florentine See also:Torrigiano (1472 ?-1522) to visit England to model and cast the bronze figures for his own magnificent tomb, which still exist in almost perfect preservation. The recumbent effigies of Henry VII. and his queen are fine specimens of Florentine art, well modelled with lifelike portrait heads and of very fine technique in the casting. The altar-tomb on which the effigies See also:lie is of black marble, decorated with large' medallion reliefs in gilt bronze, each with a pair of saints—the patrons of Henry and See also: The reredos had a large relief of the Resurrection of Christ executed in painted terra-cotta, as were also a life-size figure of the dead Christ under the altar-slab and four angels on the See also:top angles of the baldacchino; a number of fragments of these figures have recently been found in the " pockets " of the nave vaulting, where they had been thrown after the destruction of the reredos. Torrigiano's bronze effigy of See also:Margaret of See also:Richmond in the south See also:aisle of the same chapel is a very skilful but too realistic portrait, apparently taken from a cast of the dead face and hands. Another terra-cotta effigy in the Rolls chapel is also, from See also:internal evidence, attributed to the same able Florentine. Another talented Florentine sculptor, Benedetto da Maiano, was invited to England by See also:Cardinal See also:Wolsey to make his tomb; of this only the marble See also:sarcophagus now exists and has been used to hold the body of See also:Admiral See also:Nelson in St See also:Paul's Cathedral. Another member of the same family, named Giovanni, was the sculptor of the colossal terra-cotta heads of the Caesars affixed to the walls of the older part of See also:Hampton Court Palace.
In Spain, in the early part of the 16th century, a strong Italian influence superseded that of France and Germany, partly owing to the presence there of the Florentine Torrigiano Spanish and other Italian artists. The magnificent tomb of Renais-See also: The Renaissance in England. —for example, the choir reliefs at Toledo cathedral, and those in the Colegio See also:Mayor at Salamanca by Alonzo Berruguete, sculptor, painter and architect, trained in Rome and Florence, and the greatest designer of Spain up to that time. He worked under Michelangelo and See also:Vasari, and on his return to Spain in 1520 was appointed court painter and sculptor to Charles V. The same position was occupied under Philip II. by Gaspar See also:Becerra (1520-1570), whose masterpiece is a figure of Our Lady of the Solitude, in See also:Madrid. Esteban See also:Jordan, Gregorio Hernandez and other Spanish sculptors produced a large number of elaborate retables, carved in wood with subjects in relief and richly decorated in gold and colours. These sumptuous masses of polychromatic sculpture resemble the 15th-century retables of Germany more than any Italian examples, and were a sort of survival of an older medieval style. J. Morlanes was the first of Spanish sculptors to adopt the style of Albert Diirer, which afterwards became general. Philip de Vigarni, See also:Christopher of Salamanca, and Paul de See also:Cespedes, who was native of See also:Cordova, are names of great prominence up to the end of the century. Alonzo See also:Cano (r600-1667), the painter, was remarkable for clever realistic sculpture, very highly coloured and religious in style. Montanes, who died in 1614, was one of the ablest Spanish sculptors of his time. His finest works are the reliefs of the Madonna and Saints on an altar in the university church of Seville, and in the cathedral, in the chapel of St Augustine, a very nobly designed Conception, modelled with great skill. In the 17th century sculpture in wood still prevailed. The statue of St See also:Bruno of Montanez seems to have inspired others to repeat the subject in the same material: Juan de Juin (d. 1614) is a case in point. Pedro de See also:Mena and Zarcillo achieved great success in this class of sculpture. A. Pujol of See also:Catalonia and Peter Roldan carried on the Spanish tradition. The chief names in the r8th century are those of Don P. Duque Cornesso of Seville, Don J. de Hinestrosa, A. See also:Salvador (known as " the Roman," d. 1766), Philip de See also:Castro of See also:Galicia, one of the most eminent sculptors of his time (d. 1775), and F. Gutierrez (d. 1782).1 If the immediate followers of Michelangelo showed a tendency to turn the characteristics of the master's style into exaggerated mannerism, the beginning of the 17th century finds Italian sculpture in a state of complete decadence, statuesque dignity having given way to violent fluttering movement and florid excesses, such as was revived in a later century. From Italy this " See also:baroque " style spread over the whole continent of Europe and retained its hold for nearly two centuries. The chief sculptor and architect of this period was the Neapolitan, J. L. See also:Bernini (1598–1680), who, with the aid of a large school of assistants, produced an almost incredible quantity of sculpture of the most varying degrees of merit and hideousness. His chief early group, the See also:Apollo and See also:Daphne in the See also:Villa See also:Borghese, is a work of wonderful technical skill and delicate high finish, combined with soft beauty and grace, though too pictorial in style. In later life Bernini turned out work of brutal coarseness,' designed in a thoroughly un- sculpturesque spirit. The churches of Rome, the See also:colonnade of St Peter's, and the See also:bridge of S. Angelo are crowded with his clumsy colossal figures, half draped in wildly fluttering garments, —perfect See also:models of what is worst in the plastic art. And yet his works received perhaps more praise than those of any other sculptor of any age, and after his death a scaffolding was erected outside the bridge of S. Angelo in order that people might walk round and admire his rows of feeble half-naked angels. For all that, Bernini was a man of undoubted See also:talent, and in a better period of art would have been a sculptor of the first rank; many For the earlier history of Spanish sculpture, see Don Juan Augustin Cean See also:Bermudez, Diccionario historico de los mas See also:illustres trofessores de See also:las belles artes en Espagna (Madrid, 1800, 6 vols.). or the later sculptors, see B. Handke, Studien zur Geschichte der spanischen Plastik (Strasburg, 1900). 2 The Ludovisi group of See also:Pluto carrying off See also:Proserpine, now in the Borghese See also:Gallery, is a striking example, and shows Bernini's deterioration of style in later life. It has nothing in common with the See also:Cain and See also:Abel or the Apollo and Daphne of his earlier years.of his portrait-busts are works of great vigour and dignity, quite free from the mannered extravagance of his larger sculpture. Stefano Maderna (1571–1636) was the ablest of his contemporaries; his clever and much-admired statue, the figure of the dead S. See also:Cecilia under the high altar of her basilica, is chiefly remarkable for its deathlike pose and the realistic treatment of the drapery. Another clever sculptor was Alessandro See also:Algardi of Bologna (1598?-1654), who formed a school, which included G. Brunelli, D. See also:Guidi and C. Mazza of Bologna. In the next century at Naples Queirolo, Corradini and Sammartino produced a number of statues, now in the chapel of S. Maria de' Sangri, which are extraordinary examples The of wasted labour and neglect of the simplest canons classicist of plastic art. These are marble statues enmeshed in revival in nets or covered with thin veils, executed with almost Italy. deceptive realism, perhaps the lowest stage of tricky degradation into which the sculptor's art could possibly fall.' In the 18th century Italy was naturally the headquarters of the classical revival, which spread thence throughout most of Europe. See also:Canova (1757-1822), a Venetian by birth, who spent most of his life in Rome, was perhaps the leading spirit of this movement, and became the most popular sculptor of his time. His work is very unequal in merit, mostly dull and uninteresting in style, and is occasionally marred by a meretricious spirit very contrary to the true classic feeling. His group of the " Three Graces," the " See also:Hebe," and the very popular " Dancing-Girls," copies of which in plaster disfigure the stairs of countless modern hotels and other buildings on the Continent, are typical examples of Canova's worst work. Some of his sculpture is designed with far more of the purity that , distinguished antique art; his finest work is the colossal group of See also:Theseus slaying a Centaur, at See also:Vienna. Canova's attempts at Christian sculpture are singularly unsuccessful, as, for example, his pretentious monument to See also:Pope See also:Clement XIII. in St Peter's at Rome, that of See also:Titian at Venice, and See also:Alfieri's tomb in the Florentine church of S. Croce. Fiesole in the 19th century produced one sculptor of great talent, named Bastianini. He worked in the style of the great 15th-century Florentine sculptors, and followed especially the methods of his distinguished See also:fellow-townsman Mino da Fiesole. Many of Bastianini's works are hardly to be distinguished from, genuine sculpture of the 15th century, and in some cases great prices have been paid for them under the supposition that they were medieval productions. These frauds were, however, perpetrated without Bastianini's consent, or at least without his power to prevent them. Several of his best terra-cotta works may be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Whilst monumental sculpture in France during the 17th century continued to be influenced by Italy, the national tradition was carried on to a certain extent by such In France. portraitists as the two Coustous and their master See also:Coysevox (1640-1720), whose works are marked by a great sense of life and considerable technical skill. The exaggerated elegance in the treatment of the female figure, which became so marked a characteristic of French sculpture during this period, is the chief trait of Francois See also:Girardon (1630-1715), who was chiefly employed on the sculptural decorations at See also:Versailles, and on the famous equestrian statue of Louis XIV., which was destroyed during the Revolution and for which hundreds of exquisite drawings and studies were-made, now in the French national collection. Far more strength and grandeur mark the work of See also:Pierre See also:Puget (1622–1694), who is best known by his " See also:Milo of See also:Crotona " for Versailles. His training was entirely Italian, and in style considerably influenced by Bernini. He worked for some considerable time in Italy, particularly in See also:Genoa. The same opposed movements which run side by side in French 18th-century painting, See also:academic See also:allegory and frivolous sensuality, can be traced in the sculpture of this period. Of In the 19th century an Italian sculptor named Monti won much popular repute by similar unworthy tricks; some veiled statues by him in the London See also:Exhibition of 1851 were greatly admired; since then copies or imitations of them have enraptured the visitors who have crowded round the Italian sculpture stalls at every subsequent See also:international exhibition. Baroque sculpture in Italy. the first, the chief representatives are See also:Lemoyne and his See also:pupil Fakonet, who executed the equestrian statue of Peter the Great at St See also:Petersburg; of the other, Clodion, whose real name was See also:Claude See also:Michel (c. 1745–1814). The latter worked largely in terra-cotta, and modelled with great spirit and invention, but in the sensual unsculpturesque manner prevalent in his time. In the later part of the 18th century France produced two sculptors of great eminence in Jean-See also:Baptiste See also:Pigalle (1714–1785) fteenth and jean See also:Antoine See also:Houdon (174o-1828). Houdon century. may be regarded as the precursor of the modern school of French sculpture of the better sort. Towards the end of the 18th century a revolution was brought about in the style of sculpture by the suddenly revived taste for antique art. A period of dull pseudo-classicism succeeded, which in most cases stifled all original talent and reduced the plastic arts to a lifeless form of See also:archaeology. Regarded even as imitations the works of this period are very unsuccessful: the sculptors got hold merely of the dry bones, not of the spirit of classic art; and their study of the subject was so shallow and unintelligent that they mostly picked out what was third-See also:rate for special admiration and ignored the glorious beauty of the best works of true Hellenic art. Thus in sculpture, as in painting and architecture, a study which might have been stimulating and useful in the highest degree became a serious hindrance to the development of modern art; this misconception and misdirection occurred not only in France but in the other countries of Europe. In France, however, the victories of See also:Napoleon I. and his arrogant pretension to create a Gaulish empire on the model of that of ancient Rome caused the taste for pseudo-Roman art to be more pronounced than elsewhere. Among the first sculptors of this school were Antoine Chaudet (1763–181o) and See also:Joseph Bosio (1769-1845). The latter was much employed by Napoleon I.; he executed with some ability the bronze See also:spiral reliefs round the See also:column of the Place See also:Vendome and the statue of Napoleon on the top, and also modelled the classical See also:quadriga on the triumphal arch in the Place du Carrousel. Jacques See also:Pradier of See also:Geneva (1792-1862), produced the " Chained See also:Prometheus " of the Louvre and the See also:Niobe group (1822). He possessed great technical ability, but aimed in most of his works at a soft sensuous beauty which is usually considered to be specially unsuited to sculpture. Francois Rude (1784-1855), worked in a style modelled on Graeco-Roman sculpture treated with some freedom. His bronze Mercury in the Louvre, is a clever work and the enormous high-relief on the Arc de 1'Etoile in Paris, representing " The See also:Song of Departure to See also:Battle," is full of vigour and movement, but his statues of See also:Marshal See also:Ney in the Luxembourg Gardens and of General See also:Cavaignac (1847) in the cemetery of Montmartre are conspicuously poor. The reliefs on the pediment of the See also:Pantheon are by Pierre Jean David of See also:Angers (1789-1856); his early works are of dull classic style, but later in life he became a realist and produced very unsculpturesque results. A bronze statue of a Dancing See also:Fisher-lad modelled by Francois Joseph Duvet, now in the Luxembourg collection, is an able work of the genre class. Other French sculptors who were highly esteemed in their time were Ottin, Courtet, Simart, Etex and See also:Carpeaux. The last was an artist of great ability, and produced an immense number of clever but often, sculpturesquely considered, offensive statues. He obtained the highest renown in France, and, hailed as a great innovator by those who welcomed a greater measure of See also:naturalism, he was denounced by the " pure " and classic school as a typical example of the sad degradation of taste which prevailed under the rule of Napoleon III. The modern schools of French sculpture are the most important in the world; they are dealt with in a separate See also:section later. Technical skill and intimate knowledge of the human form are possessed by French artists to a degree which has probably never been surpassed. Many of their works have a similar fault to that of one class of French painters: they are much injured by an excess of sensual realism; in many cases nude statues are simply life-studies with all the faults and individualpeculiarities of one model. Very unsculpturesque results are produced by treating a statue as a See also:representation of a naked See also:person,—one, that is, who is obviously in the See also:habit of wearing clothes,—a very different thing from the purity of the ancient Greek treatment of the nude. Thus the great ability of many French sculptors has been degraded to suit, or rather to illustrate, the taste of the voluptuary. An extravagance of attitude and an undignified arrangement of the figures do much to injure some of the large groups which are full of technical merit, and executed with marvellous anatomical knowledge. This is specially the case with much of the sculpture that decorates the buildings of Paris. The group of nude dancers by Carpeaux outside the opera-house is a work of astonishing skill and sensual See also:imagination, unsculpturesque in style and especially unfitted to decorate the comparatively rigid lines of a building. The egotism of modern French sculptors, with rare exceptions, has not allowed them, when professedly aiming at providing plastic decoration for buildings, to accept the necessarily subordinate reserve which is so necessary for architectonic sculpture. Other French works, on the other hand, have frequently erred in the direction of a sickly sentimentalism, or a petty realism, which is fatal to sculpturesque beauty; or they seek to render modern life, sometimes on the scale of life-size, even to the point of securing atmospheric effect. This exaggerated misconception of the See also:function of sculpture can only be a passing phase; yet as any movement issuing from Paris finds adherents throughout other countries, the effect upon sculptors and upon public taste can hardly be otherwise than mischievous. The real power and merits of the modern French school make these faults all the more conspicuous. Whatever work of importance was produced by Netherlandish sculptors in the 17th and 18th centuries, was due entirely to Italian training and influence. Francois Duquesnoy (usually called " The See also:Fleming ") (1594–1644) has dh already been mentioned; he worked principally in sculptors. Rome, in rivalry with Bernini, and most of his works have remained in Italy, but, inasmuch as his style is conspicuously French, he is here included in the French school. His pupil Arthur Quellinus is best known by his allegorical groups on the pediments of See also:Amsterdam town-hall, and has also left some traces of his activity in Berlin. P. Buyster, native of Brussels (b. 1595), passed into France and is also often classed as a French sculptor. By far the greatest sculptor of the classical revival was Bertel See also:Thorwaldsen (1770-1844), an Icelander by See also:race, whose boyhood was spent at See also:Copenhagen, and who settled in Rome in 1797, when Canova's fame was at its highest. The sca See also:Swedish sculptors Tobias Sergell and Johann See also:Bystrom 8c:4ors. belonged to the classic school; the latter followed in Thorwaldsen's footsteps. Another Swede named See also:Fogelberg was famed chiefly for his sculptured subjects taken from Norse See also:mythology. H. W. Bissen and Jerichau of Denmark produced some able works, the former a fine equestrian statue of Frederick VII. at Copenhagen, and the latter a very spirited and widely known group of a Man attacked by a See also:Panther. During the troublous times of the See also:Reformation, sculpture, like the other arts, continued to decline. Of 17th-century monumental effigies that of See also:Sir Francis See also:Vere (d.1607) seven. in the north transept at Westminster is one of the best, teenth though its design—a recumbent effigy overshadowed centaryin by a slab covered with armour, upborne by four England. kneeling figures of men-at-arms—is almost an exact copy of the tomb of Engelbert II. of See also:Vianden-See also:Nassau? The finest bronze statues of this century are those of George See also:Villiers, duke of See also:Buckingham (d. 1628), and his wife at the north-east of Henry VII.'s chapel. The effigy of the duke, in rich armour of the time of Charles I., lies with folded hands in the usual medieval pose. The face is fine and well modelled and the casting very good. The allegorical figures at the See also:foot are caricatures of the style of Michelangelo, and are quite devoid of merit, but the kneeling statues of the duke's See also:children are designed with i See Arendt, See also:Chateau de Vianden (Paris, 1884). Batty
19th century.
grace and pathos. A large number of very handsome marble and alabaster tombs were erected throughout England during the 17th century. The effigies are poor and coarse, but the rich architectural ornaments are effective and often of beautiful materials, alabaster being mixed with various richly coloured See also:marbles in a very skilful way. See also:Nicholas Stone (1586–1647), who worked under the supervision of Ingo See also: Rysbrack (1694–1770) were the chief. The
century
gland. 1D ridiculous See also:custom of representing Englishmen of the
18th and 19th centuries in the toga or in the armour
of an ancient Roman was fatal alike to artistic merit and eikonic
truth; and when, as was often the case, the periwig of the
Georgian period was added to the costume of a Roman general
the effect is supremely ludicrous. Nollekens (1737–1823), a
pupil of Scheemakers, though one of the most popular sculptors
of the 18th century, was a man of very little real ability. John
See also: On the whole the 17th and 18th centuries in Germany, as in
England, were periods of great decadence in the plastic art;
little of merit was produced, except some portrait
German be made of Andreas See also:Schluter of See also:Hamburg (c. 1662
aw/pture.
1714), who produced many decorative bronze reliefs for the royal castle in Berlin, and the famous colossal equestrian statue of the Great Elector on the bridge in Berlin. Another artist who approached greatness in a period of utter degradation was Rafael Donner, whose principal work is the large fountain with lead figures of-See also:Providence and the four See also:rivers of Austria (the See also:Enns, Ybbs, See also:Traun and See also: See also:Friedrich See also:Drake was the ablest of Rauch's pupils, but he lived at a very unhappy period for the sculptor's art. His chief work is perhaps the colossal bronze equestrian statue of King William of See also:Prussia at Cologne. Albert See also:Wolff was a sculptor of more ability; he executed the equestrian portrait of King Ernest Augustus at See also:Hanover, and a " Horseman attacked by a Lion " now in the Berlin Museum, Augustus See also:Kiss (1802–1865) produced the companion group to this, the celebrated See also:Amazon and Panther in bronze, as well as the fine group of St George and the Dragon in a courtyard of the royal palace at Berlin. The St George and his See also:horse are of bronze; the dragon is formed of gilt plates of hammered See also:iron. Kiss worked only in metal. The bad taste of the first half of the present century is strongly shown by many of the works of See also:Theodore Kalide, whose " Bacchanal sprawling on a Panther's Back " is a marvel of awkwardness of pose and absence of any feeling for beauty. See also:Ernst See also:Rietschel (1804—1861) was perhaps the best German sculptor of this period,. and produced work superior to that of his contemporaries, such. as Haagen, Wichmann, See also:Fischer and Hiedel. Rietschel's career was marked by steady progress from a meaningless classicism: to serious realism. It was his task to erect monuments in memory of some of the greatest intellectual heroes of Germany, such as his See also:Lessing monument in Braunschweig, the monument to See also:Goethe and See also:Schiller in See also:Weimar, and that to See also: 1826) is the author of the colossal national monument on the See also:Niederwald near See also:Rudesheim, and Ernst Bandel of the imposing monument of Hermann See also:Arminius in the Teutoburg See also:Forest near Detmold. It was See also:Reinhold See also:Begas (b. 1831) who definitely See also:broke away from the all-pervading classicist tradition. His art has more in common with that of the See also:Rococo period than with that of Canova and his followers. Not only did he excel in the rendering of textures, and in giving life and animation to his figures, but his earlier work was marked by unconventionality and great boldness of disposition. Unfortunately his rapid success, and the See also:official favour that was shown to him, led him subsequently to hasty and what might almost be described as factory-like production. His work became pretentious, and though some of the reliefs and single figures on his monuments are remarkable for his keen gift of observation, the whole effect is frequently spoilt by the unnecessary introduction of disturbing decorative features, See also:ill-disposed and singularly lacking in sculptural dignity. The monument of the emperor William I. with the two beautiful 2In size, but not in merit, this enormous statue was surpassed by the figure of See also:Liberty made in Paris by Bartfioldi and erected as a See also:beacon in the See also:harbour of New York city. Modern figures. Among the rare exceptions mention must reliefs of See also:Peace and War, and the Neptune fountain, both in front of the imperial palace, and the Schiller monument before the royal See also:theatre, all in Berlin, are perhaps his most successful works. The See also:Bismarck in front of the Reichstag building suffers from the excessive use of allegorical motifs and from other errors of taste. Of Begas's many pupils, who participated in the execution of the numerous statues that flank the Siegesallee in the Berlin Thiergarten, the most distinguished is Joseph Uphues (b. 1850), who is the creator of the See also:Moltke monument in Berlin, and of the Frederick the Great in the Siegesallee, a replica of which is to be found in See also:Washington. Adolf Briitt (b. 1855) and Gustav Eberlein should be mentioned among the most successful Berlin sculptors; Robert Dietz, as the founder of an important school in Dresden; and Wilhelm Ruemann (d. 1906) and Rudolf Maison among the modern sculptors of Munich. The closing years of the 19th century were marked by an enormous advance, not only in public appreciation of sculpture but in productive activity. The younger See also:generation of Berlin sculptors includes such distinguished artists as Fritz Klimsch, who is best known by " The See also:Triumph of Woman " and " The Kiss "; See also:Hugo Lederer, the designer of the Bismarck monument in Hamburg; See also:August Gaul, who excelled in statuettes of animals; Max Kruse, a woodcarver of great ability; and Louis Touaillon, who spent his early years in Rome, and became famous for the excellent See also:anatomy 4nd See also:action of his equine studies. Karl Seffner, of Leipzig; August Hudler, of Dresden; Georg Weba, Fritz Christ, Erwin See also:Kurz, Hermann See also:Hahn, Theodor von Gosen and Hugo See also:Kaufmann, all of Munich, should also here be mentioned. Adolf See also:Hildebrand (b. 1847) is best known by his See also:Wittelsbach fountain in Munich and his Reinhard fountain in Strassburg. He has also executed some excellent medals and plaquettes. See also:Franz Stuck, who has ranked among the leading painters of modern Germany, has also produced some powerful pieces of sculpture, such as the See also:Beethoven, and the " See also:Athlete. holding a heavy See also:Ball." Max See also:Klinger (b. 1857), famous as painter and etcher, revived polychromatic sculpture in Germany. His Beethoven monument, at the Leipzig Museum, is the best known example of his work in this direction. The great composer is conceived as Jupiter enthroned, with the See also:eagle at his feet. The work caused an enormous sensation on its first See also:appearance before the public and became a veritable See also:apple of discord around which a wordy war was waged by the different factions. The Leipzig Museum also owns his See also:Cassandra and a rough-hewn portrait bust of See also:Liszt. One of his most striking works is the See also:Nietzsche bust at Weimar. At the Albertinum, in Dresden, is an important late work of his, a marble group of three beautifully modelled life-size figures, " The See also:Drama." (J.H.M.; M.H.S.; P.G.K.) During the first half of the 19th century the prevalence of a See also:cold, lifeless pseudo-classic style was fatal to individual talent, and robbed the sculpture of England of all real vigour Modern and spirit. Francis See also:Chantrey (178z-1841) produced Brutish sculpture. a great quantity of sculpture, especially sepulchral monuments, which were much admired in spite of their limited merits. See also:Allan See also:Cunningham and Henry Weekes, who excelled in busts of men, worked in some cases in See also:conjunction with Chantrey, who was distinguished by considerable technical skill. John See also:Gibson (1 790-1866) was perhaps after Flaxman the most successful of the English classic school, and produced some works of real merit. He strove eagerly to revive the polychromatic decoration of sculpture in imitation of the circumlitio of classical times. His See also:Venus Victrix," shown at the exhibition in London of 1862 (a work of about six years earlier), was the first of his coloured statues which attracted much attention.. The See also:prejudice, however, in favour of white marble was too strong, and both the popular See also:verdict and that of other sculptors were strongly adverse to the " tinted Venus." The fact is that Gibson's colouring was timidly applied: it was a sort of See also:compromise between the two systems, and thus his sculpture lost the special qualities of a pure marble surface, without gaining the richly decorative effect of the polychromy either of the Greeks or of the medieval period. The other chief
sculptors of the same inartistic period were See also:Banks, the elder See also:Westmacott (who modelled the See also:Achilles in See also:Hyde See also:Park), R. Wyatt (who cast the equestrian statue of See also:Wellington, removed from London to See also:Aldershot), See also:Macdowell, See also: But it was to Jules Dalou that was chiefly due the remarkable development in Great Britain. A See also:political refugee at the time of the See also:Commune, he received a cordial welcome from the artists of England, and was invited to assume the mastership of the modelling classes at South Kensington. This See also:post he retained for some years, until the See also:amnesty for political offenders enabled him to return to his native See also:land; but before he left he had succeeded in making it clear that severe training is an essential See also:foundation of good sculpture. This had been but partly understood—is not even now wholly realized; yet by the impression he made, Dalou improved, the work in the schools beyond all recognition. The whole conception of sculpture seemed to be modified, and intelligent See also:enthusiasm was aroused in the students. When he departed, he left in his See also:stead See also:Professor Lanteri, who became a naturalized Englishman, and who exercised a beneficent influence over the students equal to that of his predecessor. Meanwhile, the See also:Lambeth Art Schools —where Mr W. S. See also:Frith, a pupil of M. Dalou, was conducting his modelling class under the directorship of John Sparkes (d. 19o7)--were being maintained with great success. At the Royal See also:Academy, where in roof the professorship of sculpture was revived after many years, the inspiring genius of Alfred Gilbert aroused the students to an enthusiasm curiously contrasting with the See also:comparative apathy, which passed as dignified See also:restraint, of earlier days. British sculpture, therefore, when it is not coloured directly from the Italian Renaissance, is certainly influenced from France. But it is remarkable that in spite of this turning of British sculptors to romantic realism as taught by Frenchmen and Italians, and in spite of the fact that the spirit of colour and decoration and greater realism in modelling had been brought from abroad, the actual character of British sculpture, even in its most decorative forms, is not in the main other than British. Nevertheless, there has been shown a tendency towards reviving the application of colour in sculpture which has not met with universal approval. Although the polychromatic work of the Renaissance, for example, may keep its place, it is held to clash with the See also:idea of sculptural art; for though there is no See also:absolute approach to imitation, there is a very strong suggestion of it. The use of a variety of marbles and metals, or other materials, such as has been increasingly adopted, does not offend in the same measure, as the result is purely formal. Yet, in the final result, the work becomes not so much sculpture broadly seen, as an " See also:object of art," amiably imagined and delicately wrought. Indeed, the sculptor has been greatly reinforced by the artificer in metal, enamel, and the like. But the revival of metal-work, cut,. beaten, and See also:twisted, however fine in itself, does not help sculpture forward very much. It may even keep it back; for, popular and beautiful as it is, it really tends to divert the attention from form to design, and from light and shade, with planes, to ingenuity, in pleasing lines—a very beautiful and elevated art, but not sculpture. As an See also:adjunct, it may be extremely valuable in the hands of a fine artist who does not See also:mistake the mere wriggles and doublings which are the mark of the more extravagant phase of the so-called " New Art " for harmonious " See also:line." But it must always suggest the man with the See also:anvil, See also:shears, and pincers, rather than the man with the clay and the See also:chisel. It is mainly to Alfred Gilbert that is due the delightful revival of metal-work in its finest form wedded to sculpture, with the introduction of marbles, gems, and so forth, felicitous and elegant in invention and ornament, and so excellent in design and taste that in his hands, at least, it is subservient to the monumental character of his sculpture. The first effectual See also:rebellion against the Classic, and the birth of See also:Individualism, dates back to Alfred Stevens. The picturesque fancy of the Frenchman Roubiliac (who practised for many years in England), with his theatrical arrangement and skilful technique, inherited from his master See also:Coustou, had left little mark on the Englishmen of his day. They went on, for the most part, with their pseudo-classic tradition, which Flaxman carried to the highest point. But until Stevens, few in England thought of instilling real life and blood and English thought and feeling into the clay and marble. It was not only life that Stevens realized, but dignity, nobility of form, and movement, previously unknown in English work. Follower though he was of Michelangelo and the Italian Renaissance. he was entirely See also:personal. He was no copyist, although he had the Italian traditions at his fingers' ends, and his feeling for architecture helped him to treat sculpture with fine decorative effect. Yet even Stevens and his brilliant example were powerless to weaken the See also:passion for the Greek and Roman tradition that had engrossed English sculptors—with their cold imitations and lifeless art, pursued in the name of their fetish, " the Antique."
Until towards the close of the 19th century this pseudo-classic art was blindly pursued by a non-Latin race, and a public favourite like W. Calder Marshall (1813–1894; A.R.A., 1844; R.A., 1852) never attempted, except perhaps in the " Prodigal Son," now at the See also:Tate Gallery, to break away towards originality of thought.
See also: It was he who cast for See also:Landseer the lions of the Nelson monument in See also:Trafalgar Square, London.
Later on Charles Bell See also:Birch (1832-1893; A.R.A., 1880), with his German training, introduced a new picturesque See also:element in his " Wood Nymph," " See also:Retaliation," " The Last See also:Call," and the " Memorial to Lieut. See also: He was carrying out commissions of considerable magnitude —in the Palace of Westminster, and in the Abbey itself, for which he executed the marble reredos with its many figures, the whole of the external sculptural decorations for the Colonial See also:Office in White-hall, as well as the eighty-four life-sized figures on two sides of the See also:podium of the Albert Memorial, with the four bronze statues, " See also:Chemistry," " See also:Astronomy," See also:Medicine," and " See also:Rhetoric." Portrait-figures of all ages are here classed together, and the work is a better-sustained piece of designing and carving than is commonly understood. The statue set up at See also:Chatham of ' See also:Lieutenant Wag-See also:horn " is a good example of Armstead's sculpture, impressive by its breezy strength and picturesqueness; but a more remarkable work, technically':speaking, is the memorial to a son of the earl of See also:Wemyss, " David and the Lion," now fixed in the Gnards' Chapel. It is in very flat relief ; Ninevite in character of treatment, and carved wholly by the artist directly from the living model, it is, in point of technique, one of his best productions. His marble statuette of " Remorse," bought for the Chantrey Collection, is a remarkable example of combined intensity of expression and elevated purity of style. The work of Armstead is monumental in character—the quality which has been so rare among British sculptors, yet the finest quality of all; and in almost everything he did there is a bigness " of style which assures him his place in the British school. Following the See also:chronological order of the artists' first public appearance, as being the most convenient and the only consistent method that will prevent overlapping, we come to F. T. See also:Williamson (b. 1853), who executed many, works for Queen Victoria; John Hutchison, R.S.A. (b. 1856), a Scottish sculptor. of the Classic school; and George A. See also:Lawson, H.R.S.A. (1832-1904). Lawson, was a pupil of See also: He is the author of many monumental works and not a little decorative sculpture, but he is best recognized by ideal subjects, such as " See also:Dionysus astride his See also:Leopard " (his finest work), " The Goddess Gerd," " The See also:Falconer " (in the Central Park, New York), " See also:Cupid and Campaspe " and " See also:Anemone, the See also:Wind Flower." His treatment of the undraped female figure is refined and delicate, and there is an intellectual reality about his best work, as well as imagination in conception. A. See also:Bruce-Joy (b. See also:Dublin, 1842) has produced ideal work and statues of public men for public spaces, and many busts. Thomas See also:Brock (b. 1847; A.R.A., 1883; R.A., 1891), whose work is prodigious in amount as well as solid and scholarly, came to London from Worcester in 1866 and fell early under the influence of the sculptor Foley, who was soon to See also:rebel against the formalism that prevailed. When his chief died, in 1874, Brock was appointed to carry out the great unfinished works in the studio—the ' O'Connell Monument " In Dublin, the " Lord See also:Canning " in See also:Calcutta, and several others. But he felt the foreign current; and even when his style was formed, his career being already assured, he was perceptive enough to modify it, and, so developed, he left his master very far behind. The ideal work that marked this transition was " The Moment of Peril," a fine, scholarly work representing a mounted Red See also:Indian repelling the attack of a great See also:serpent which has thrown his horse to earth. How greatly he improved in technical quality and in refinement of taste is to be seen in the life-sized marble statue called " The Genius of See also:Poetry "—graceful where the " Moment of Peril " was violent in action, reposeful and harmonious where that was vigorous, and sculpturesque where that was anecdotal. A higher intellectual point was reached in " Song " and in the " Eve," now in the Tate Gallery in London. A similar advance is to be observed in Brock's portraiture. The statues of " Robert See also:Raikes " (on the See also:Thames Embankment) and " Sir Richard Temple " (in Bombay Town Hall), for. example, are finely treated, unconventional figures; but " The Rt. Rev. Henry Philpott, D.D., Bishop of Worcester," in which the inherent difficulty of a seated figure is happily surmounted, marks the progress. The skill with which the artist has given the drapery, especially of the sleeves, a lightness not commonly seen, is striking. There are no black holes of shadow: the depressions are shallow and of the right shape to hold light even while securing shadow; yet weakness, is avoided and crispness is secured by the sharpening of the edge of the folds--the principle which is established in the Pheidian group of The Fates," for example, among the See also:Elgin Marbles. Other works of importance in the same class are the effigy of " Dr See also:Benson, archbishop of Canter-See also:bury," and the admirable statue of " Sir Richard See also:Owen " in the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, and especially the " Thomas See also:Gainsborough " in the Tate Gallery, are all of a high order whether as to character or handling. With these may be grouped the statue of " Sir Henry See also:Irving," the See also:tribute of British actors to the memory of the great dramatic artist (1910), and the seated marble statue of Lord See also:Russell (1904). The bust of Queen Victoria is one of the noblest and most dignified works of its class executed in England ; full of tenderness and of character, lovingly rendered; and with a delicate feeling for form, rightly realized. This head heralded the noble work by which the memory of Lord Leighton is to be kept See also:green in the aisle of St Paul's cathedral. In proportion and in See also:harmony of design and of line, alike in conception and in reticence, it is the sculptural expression of a well-ordered mind and taste. The effigy shows Leighton asleep, while figures personifying his arts, painting and sculpture, guard his sarcophagus at head and foot. There is a note of triumph in the great design for the " Queen Victoria Memorial," which provides London with its most elaborate sculptural effort, rising 70 ft. high on a See also:plateau 20o ft. across, with numerous emblematical figures of great size and imposing arrangement. It is based on an elevated style, dignified, refined and monumental; for Brock is a sculptor in the full sense of the See also:term, and his lines are always good. D. W. See also:Stevenson, R.S.A. (1842–1904), in his general work showed but little sympathy with modern developments. The " Bronze See also:Lectern " (in St See also:Cuthbert's Church, See also:Edinburgh) is perhaps the most decoratively effective; but his most ambitious work, called " The Pompeian See also:Mother," is a modern See also:adaptation of the " Niobe and her Daughter " by a follower of the school of See also:Scopas in the Uffizi Gallery. Although See also:Horace Montford, modelling master at the Royal Academy, passed much time in the studio of See also:Matthew Noble (1818–1876), he did not thereby lose his sculptural taste. Not that he displayed it much in the See also:share he had, as assistant to C. B. Birch, A.R.A., in the modelling of the notorious " City See also:Griffin " at Temple Bar—a weird but spirited beast, the design for which had been supplied by the city architect, Sir Horace Jones. " A Hymn to See also:Demeter," a life-size statue full of movement, and the statue of " See also:Psyche and the See also:Casket of Venus," may be named as typical of the style of Montford, whose work is usually broad and sculpturesque, distinguished by firmness and grace. Sir Charles B. See also:Lawes-Wittewronge (b. 1843) has produced three large works which have attracted attention: an elaborate and spirited equestrian group of a female Mazeppa—" They See also:Bound me on " (1888); " The See also:United States of See also:America " (189o), decorative and not without elegance, and " The Death of See also:Dirce." The last-named, of heroic size, in variously coloured bronze, was first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1908, and again, in coloured marbles (yet not truly polychromatic in character) in colossal size, at the Franco-British Exhibition (1908). The complexity of the design, the skilful composition and arrangement of the elaborate group, the vigour of the modelling, and the impressiveness with which the work imposes itself upon the spectator, combine to render this perhaps the most important sculptured group of its kind exhibited in England. Sir Charles's work is always strong and robust, though occasionally somewhat lacking in repose. W. Hamo See also:Thornycroft (b. 1850; A.R.A., 1881; R.A., 1888) became a great influence for good in the British school. His tendency towards the Greek has been a wholesome reminder of the danger of the over-enthusiasm for naturalism, and yet was never forced to conventionalism. Alike in ideal work, in monumental sculpture and in portraiture, his art is marked by refined taste and scholarship and a noble sense of beauty. It is strong, yet without undue display of power. In him we have to appreciate an unaffected sympathy with grandeur and style, and in all, a big, broad rendering of the human form, with something of the movement of the Greek sculptors and not a little of their repose, yet individual and unmistakablybelonging to the British order of mind. In his largest monumental group, however, the " National Memorial to W. E. See also:Gladstone," erected in the Strand, London, there is little trace of the classic. In this work, as in the bronze statue of Bishop See also:Creighton in St Paul's Cathedral, there is,a modern feeling entirely responsive to the feeling of the people. Mr Thornycroft's seated marble statue of Lord Tennyson (1909) in Trinity College, Cambridge, is one of his finest portrait figures, full of dignity and excellent in likeness—a worthy memorial of the poet. J. Havard Thomas began in 1872 to exhibit portrait sculpture, and soon turned his attention to ideal work, but he did not attract widespread attention until 1886, when he produced " The Slave Girl." This marble nude was a curious contrast to most Slave Girls by other sculptors—that by Hiram See also:Powers, for example. Somewhat stunted in form, she is nevertheless full of very human grace and well-felt realism, and is a good example of the artist's carving. Mr Thomas, indeed, is one of the few to carve his own marbles, often without taking the intermediate step of making a clay model. This of course cannot be the case with his large sculpture, such as his great statue of " The Rt. Hon. W. E. See also:Forster " at See also:Bradford, and his " Samuel See also:Morley, M.P.," and " See also:Edmund See also:Burke, JVI.P.," both at See also:Bristol; but the beautiful small heads of peasants and children—such as the Donatellesque " Pepinella "—of See also:Capri, where he lived for years from 1889 onwards, are mostly carved- See also:direct from life. The beauty of his chisel work can be seen to perfection in the exquisite bust of Mrs Wertheimer in the Tate Gallery; the marble seems to turn to flesh under his chisel and to palpitate with life: it is, perhaps, too much like flesh. This is very far from the " Classic," with over-attention to which Mr Thomas has curiously and quite inaccurately been reproached. It is true that his much discussed statue " Lycidas " appears to be a distant See also:echo of See also:Myron; it is in truth archaistic, but with an aim altogether different from that of the Greek. It is Classic in a sense, full of life and wonderfully modelled, but the attainment of perfection of human beauty was not the intention of the sculptor, and yet it appears to the unobserving as but a rifacimento. There is a vivid sense of style in Mr Thomas's work, and sometimes a See also:search for beauty in subjects which to the common See also:eye may suggest the ugly. But Mr Thomas must be recognized as an artist of great power and originality and to the last degree conscientious. Sculptural subtleties he loves, and he works in a low See also: Joseph Swynnerton (d. 1910) was a sculptor who spent a good deal of his time in Rome and worked under her influence. His colossal fountain of flowers, zephyrs and splashing See also:nymphs is, on the contrary, rather rococo in style, with charming passages. On the other hand, " Love's See also:Chalice " is Classic in feeling. Generally speaking, Swynnerton's work has an appearance of strength, without commonness or lack of effect. E. Onslow Ford (1852–1901; A.R.A., 1888; R.A., 1895) was lost to British art before he had passed middle age. His seated statue of Henry Irving as See also:Hamlet " is a well-conceived piece of realism, with expression subtly marked, and verging upon the theatrical—which is precisely what an actor's character-portrait should be. Compared with this work, the later seated statue, that of " See also:Huxley," keen and refined, is more strictly sculpturesque—for in it there is no " subject," and there are no ornaments to divert the attention and suggest a false appearance of decoration. The statue of " Gordon " mounted on a See also:camel—reminding us too vividly of the " Arab Chief " by See also:Barye—is more open to See also:criticism on the See also:score of the elaborateness of the ornamental details, which almost reach the boundary of what is allowable in sculpture. It is erected at Chatham, and a replica has been set up (1902) in See also:Khartum. A finer memorial is that to the honour of " See also:Shelley." It is, however, better in its parts than in its entirety, because the decorative See also:scheme injures, rather than See also:helps, the sculptural dignity of the drowned poet's exquisitely-rendered figure. Of Onslow Ford's other memorials, that of Queen Victoria at See also:Manchester is perhaps the most discussed and the least to be admired. for although the conception is dignified and characteristic, it does not rank by any means with the best of which the artist was capable. As a truthful portraitist Onslow Ford had few rivals. The sitter is before the spectator, without undue flattery, yet without ever showing the commoner side of the model. Flesh, See also:bone, hair, clothing, are all in their true relation, and the whole is admirably realized. See also:Idealism, or at least poetic realism, Onslow Ford cultivated in a series of small works. Of his last figure, " See also:Glory to the Dead," it may be said that, although statuesque; it carries realism rather far in treatment. It may be objected that in funerary art, so to call it, the nude was never resorted to by the Greeks in such a relation; but Onslow Ford felt that he was working, not for ancient Greeks, but for modern Englishmen, and that sentiment, and not archaeology, must in such matters be the See also:guide. There are, besides, the" See also:Marlowe Memorial," set up in Canterbury—graceful and refined, but rather trifling in manner—and the " See also:Jowett Memorial," a wall decoration, in the style of the Italian Renaissance. The work of Onslow Ford always charms, for he had a strong sense of the picturesque and a true feeling for beauty, but with insufficient power. But for his delight in decorative detail, he would have been greater than he was; for over-enrichment is in inevitable opposition to the greater qualities of the monumental and the dignified in glyptic art, and abundance of small details involves poorness of effect. But against Ford's taste, especially against his admirable dexterity, little can be said. The high degree of refinement, the See also:charm of modelling, grace of line and composition, sweetness of feeling, which are the note of his work, are in a great measure a set-off against occasional weakness of design and character, and lack of monumental effect. H. R. See also:Hope Pinker is primarily a portrait-sculptor. Of all his works the seated statue of " Dr See also:Martineau " is perhaps the best, for interest, refinement, and for technical qualities. His reliefs are as numerous as his statues, of which the most popular is the " Henry See also:Fawcett " in the Market Place of Salisbury, but his most important work is the colossal statue of Queen Victoria executed for the See also:government of British See also:Guiana. The most remarkable work executed by any British See also:amateur-sculptor is the " See also:Shakespeare Memorial," presented to the nation, by Lord Ronald See also:Sutherland See also:Gower, and set up by him outside the Shakespeare Theatre at See also:Stratford-on-See also:Avon (1888). This monument. carried out in Paris, represents the poet on the See also:summit, attended below by the four great characters—" Hamlet," " Henry V.," " Lady See also:Macbeth " and " Falstaff," designed with singular ability and a happy display of symbolic inventiveness. Lord Ronald also modelled statues of " See also:Marie Antoinette," " The Dying Guardsman," and other works which have secured wide attention. In 1877 there burst upon the world a new sculptor, in the person of Sir Frederick (afterwards Lord) Leighton (1830–1896; A.R.A., 1864; R.A., 1868), who, in the following year, was to be the See also:president of the Royal Academy. His first work was " An Athlete Struggling with the See also:Python." No piece of sculpture of modern times made a greater stir on its appearance; for here was a work, by a painter, a work, it was declared, which would have done honour to the ancients, fine in style, noble in type and in form, learned in the knowledge of the figure it displayed, original and strong in pose, in action and movement; scholarly in execution and See also:instinct, with the manner of the painter himself. The group was hailed as a masterpiece by one who was thought to be not yet even a student in sculpture, and it was declared by the most exacting critics to be worthy to rank with the best examples of all but the finest periods. Yet it is somewhat lacking in expression—in that kind of humanity which every really great masterpiece of art should exhibit; and connoisseurs applauded the technique, the surface qualities and the like, when they should have been caught by the sentiment. But as Leighton was seeking only the beauty and expression of form, to the neglect of sentiment, he was well content with the reception and world-wide recognition of his work. One day the model for the " Athlete," tired out, rose and stretched himself, and the sculptor was so enraptured by the pose that he forthwith began the model for the " Sluggard." This work is in its way of still higher accomplishment than the " Athlete." It is just as Greek as the other in its devotion to form and its worship of the beauty of the human frame. But it is a condition, a sensation, an idea, rather than an action, that is here recorded ; and so it is the higher conception. And it has some of the See also:mystery which is distinctive of the finest art of ancient times, in which modern sculpture is almost entirely deficient. Yet while the " Athlete " may be compared, in idea, with the relatively debased " See also:Laocoon," which it seems in some degree to follow if not to See also:challenge, the " Sluggard " belongs to a more elevated expression of a distinctly pagan art, and, as it were, to a better period. Great as was the sensation made by these works, and by the charming little statue of " Needless Alarms " (cast by the " lost-wax " process), Leighton seems to have left no direct follower or imitator among the younger men.
T. See also:Stirling See also: See also:Swan (1847–1910; A.R.A., 1894; R.A., 1905); a pupil of the Royal Academy and of GerSme and See also:Fremiet, specialized as a sculptor of a particular class of subject. He is a stylist in a high degree, whose work is full of beauty and importance. For the most part, but by no means exclusively, his sculptures are studies of animals, mainly of the felidae; but he would pass from the accentuation of action to the covering of skin and hair, without seeking much to emphasize the bone and flesh, because they alone display, with thefascinating expressiveness of their sinuous bodies, the whole range of the passions in the most concentrated form. In the " Leopard Playing with a See also:Tortoise," " Leopard See also:Running," " See also:Puma and See also:Macaw."' and similar works, we have the note of his art—sinuosity, with tense muscles, stretched and folded skin, suppressed frenzy of enjoyment. The note of Barye, the great Frenchman, from whom in some measure Swan See also:drew inspiration, is power and strength and decorative form, but his aim is rather at fine, grim, naturalistic studies of a great See also:cat's crawl, with amazing vivacity and vitality. In certain groups, such as " See also:Orpheus " and " Boy and Bear Cubs," the sculptor combines the human figure with animal forms. In the composition of these there is always the note of originality. Another student of animal life is Harry See also:Dixon, whose bronze " See also:Wild See also:Boar " is in the Tate Gallery. " A Bear Running," excellent alike in character, form and construction, and especialy in movement, " Otters- and See also:Salmon," and the figure-subject called " The Slain Enemy "—a prehistoric man with a dead See also:wolf—are among his chief works. Andrea C. Lucchesi is one of the few who, in spite of all discouragement, has not only persisted in concentrating his attention on ideal work, but has devoted most of it to the rendering of the female form. Prominent among his figures are those called " Destiny," " The See also:Flight of Fancy," " The See also:Mountain of Fame," " The See also:Myrtle's Altar," " See also:Carthage, 149 B.C.," and "Verity and Illusion." Mr Lucchesi's main excellence is in the treatment of nude forms, in which he has succeeded, through agreeable working out of idea and excellent execution, in interesting a public usually indifferent to_ this branch of sculpture. Alfred Gilbert (b. 1854; A.R.A., 1887; R.A.; 1892; resigned, 1909) is to be regarded as one of the greatest figures in British sculpture, not only as being a master of his art, but as having preached in his work a great movement, and in less than a See also:decade effected more than any other man for the salvation of the British school, and inspired almost as much as Carpeaux or Dalou, the See also:young sculptors of the country. Among his earlier works are two fine heads of a man and a girl, pure in style and incisive in character, which were cast by the cire perdue, or " lost-wax," process, which he had learned in Naples. Its introduction into Great Britain—or, it may be more correct to say, its revival—had considerable influence on the treatment of bronze sculpture by British artists. In Gilbert's portraiture we have not merely likenesses in the round, but little See also:biographies full of character, with a spiritual and decorative as well as a See also:physical side, and the See also:mental quality displayed with manly sympathy. Flesh and textures are perfectly realized, yet broad, simple. and modest. Many of these qualities are as obvious in his portrait-statues, such as the fine effigy set up to " John See also:Howard " in the market-place of See also:Bedford. The monument with which Gilbert's name will ever be associated is the " Statue of Queen Victoria " set up at Winchester, which, since its erection and re-erection in that city, has been irretrievably injured by depredations, and remains incomplete in its decorative details. The queen is shown with extra-See also:ordinary dignity. Large in its masses, graceful in its lines, the person of the queen enveloped by all the symbolical figures and fanciful ornaments with which the artist has chosen to enrich it, the monument marks the highest level in this class to which any sculptor and metal-worker has reached for generations. The See also:pro-See also:fusion of an ardent and poetic imagination is seen throughout in the arrangement of the figure itself, in the exquisite " Victory " that used to surmount the See also:orb, in the stately throne. Invention, originality, and inspiration are See also:manifest in every part, and every detail is worked out with See also:infinite care, and birth is given to a score of dainty conceits, not all of them, perhaps, entirely defensible from the purely sculptural point of view. In a measure it suggests goldsmithry, to which the genius of Gilbert has so often yielded, as in the exquisite epergne presented to Queen Victoria on her See also:jubilee in 1887, typifying Britannia's See also:realm and See also:sea power in endless poetic and dainty suggestions of beautiful devices. Among Gilbert's memorials, not mentioned elsewhere, are those to " See also:Frank See also:Holl, R.A.," and to " See also:Randolph See also:Caldecott," both in the crypt of St Paul's cathedral, London; the " Henry Fawcett " memorial in Westminster Abbey, which, with its row of expressive little symbolical figures, has been styled " a little See also:garden of sculpture." symbolical finest work of its kind in England is the " Tomb of the Duke of See also:Clarence " in St . George's chapel, which in 1910 still awaited _final completion. Perhaps his best composition expressive of emotion is the half-length group " Mors Janua Vitae," a terra-cotta group designed to be executed in bronze for the hall of the Royal College of Surgeons. Few artists in any age have shown greater genius as at once artificer and sculptor. Gilbert is fond of dealing with a subject which allows his fancy full See also:play. His work is full of colour; it is playful and broad. The smallest details are big in treatment, and every part is carefully thought out and most ingenious in design. His playfulness has caused him at times to be somewhat too florid in manner; but his taste is so just, and his fancy so inexhaustible, that he has safely given See also:rein to his imagination where another man would have run See also:riot and come to grief. Robert See also:Stark is an animal sculptor who has usually attracted the See also:notice of connoisseurs rather than of the greater public, and his fine bronze statuette of an " Indian See also:Rhinoceros " is to be seen in the Chantrey Collection. Mr Stark has a profound knowledge of animal anatomy; his range is considerable, and he is as easy with a rhinoceros as with a See also:cart-horse or a See also:hunter. Conrad Dressler is best known for his busts of distinguished men, but his statue of " A Girl Tying up her See also:Sandal," and his two large marble panels for St George's Hall, Liverpool, assured him his position. There is a cleverness, a daring, in his marked style, vigour of treatment, and a tendency towards emphasis, especially in his decorative work, much of which is designed for execution in Della Robbia ware. Since his return to pure sculpture he has executed some important work, including a bronze " Bacchante." In the work of Harry See also:Bates (1850–1899; A.R.A., 1892), especially in the reliefs, with its See also:balance and dignity, its rhythmical line and fine expression, is to be seen a flexibility which few Englishmen had shown up to that time. Style and a genuinely modern treatment of classic form, which is not weakened by touches of naturalism, were also to be recognized. Nor—in his Homer," for example—does the background detract from the main subject: Homer and Humanity in front; and behind, a See also:vision of the Parthenon and See also:Pallas Athene, and the great See also:Sun of Art rising with the See also:dawn of Poetry. " Psyche " is more delicate in thought and treatment, but it has little of the originality or force of the " Homer," or of the classic style seen in the head called " Rhodope." The serene and reposeful statue of " See also:Pandora," about to open her ivory casket, successfully achieves the purity of-style at which the sculptor aimed. " Hounds in Leash " (the bronze of which belongs to the earl of Wemyss) is a vigorous group which was undertaken by Bates in response to the criticism that he could design no figures but such as are at rest. The plastic group is in the Tate Gallery, where it figures along with the Pandora." , In " See also:Endymion the sculptor seems to have united in some degree the sculptural ideas expressed in the " Homer " and the central relief of " Psyche ": there is in it a good deal of the grace of the one and of the decorative force of the other, together with a lofty sense of beauty. The portrait-busts of Harry Bates are good pieces of realism—strong, yet delicate in technique, and excellent in character. Sir George Frampton (b. 1860; A.R.A., 1894; R.A., 1902; knighted, 1908), pupil of the Royal Academy, the Lambeth Schools, and Merci6 in Paris, is a particularly versatile and original artist, thoroughly in the " new movement " which he has done so much to direct. Highly accomplished, he is at home in every branch of his art, and covers the whole field. He first exhibited See also:Socrates Teaching "(1884), and followed this with "The Songster " (1887), "AnAct of See also:Mercy " (1888), " In Silence Prayeth She," " The Angel of Death " (1889), " Caprice " (1891), and in 1892" The Children of the Wolf "—his last ideal statue of the kind. It was followed by Mysteriarch," heralding a class of work with which the artist has since identified himself; for being in open rebellion against " white sculpture," he thenceforward devoted himself to colour. " Mother and Child" is an experiment in polychromatic figure-work. The half-length figure called See also:Lamia," with ivory face, head, and See also:neck, and in a See also:quaint head-and-neck See also:dress of bronze jewelled, is a further departure from the true reserve of sculpture, but beautiful and delightful in feeling. The statue of " Dame Alice Owen," in bronze and marble, and " King Edward VI." are original, notwithstanding the pseudo-medieval taste of their conception. Frampton is happiest in distinctly decorative sculpture. His prolific and inventive fancy has expressed itself in such works as the bronze " The Steamship " and The Sailing Ship " for See also:Lloyd's Registry in London, and in the memorial " Monument to Charles See also:Mitchell," at See also:Newcastle-on-See also:Tyne. Herein a new note is sounded, and we have some of the most striking features of Frampton's design. That is to say, he seeks to See also:escape from the purely architectural forms, pediments and See also:mouldings, introducing his own inventions of curved lines, and frequently substituting tree-forms for columns or pilasters, with roots for bases, trunks for pillars, and branches and foliage for capitals. Besides these should be mentioned " The Vision," the seven heroines from the Morte d'Arthur, " My Thoughts are my Children," " See also:Music" and " Dancing," and memorials and busts of " Charles See also:Keene," " R. See also:Stuart See also:Poole, " See also:Leigh See also:Hunt," " Passmore See also:Edwards," " Dr See also:Garnett," a colossal statue of " Queen Victoria " erected in Calcutta, and another, an extremely successful work, for See also:Leeds. His group of " Maternity " (1905) and the full-length seated statue of the See also:marquess of Salisbury (1907) have added to his reputation. There are always charm of arrangement, delicacy of workmanship, and daintiness of feeling, as well as considerable power of design, simplicity, and breadth in his work. Sir George Frampton has also produced a number of fine medals. W. S. Frith, one of the most successful teachers of sculptors in England, is chiefly remarkable for the decorative quality of his work. As in the monument to " See also:Wheatstone, Inventor of the See also:Telegraph," or again, the standard lamps at the See also:Astor See also:Estate Office on the Thames Embankment, the sculptor shows charm of thought and spirit of design, vigour, and richness of effect. His ideal statuary and portraiture are not his chief work, however; his decorative sculpture for ecclesiastical and See also:secular buildings is vast in extent and has had good influence on the younger school. One of his chief works is the " Bishop Ellicott's Memorial," a tomb with recumbent figure, a design of considerable imagination. Henry A. Pegram (b. 1862; A.R.A., 1904), a pupil of Hamo Thornycroft and of the Royal Academy, attracted early attentionwith " Death Liberating a Prisoner," and by the two high reliefs Ignis Fatuus " (acquired for the Chantrey Collection) and " The Doom of See also:Medusa." These were followed by Eve," " Sibylla Fatidica," " The Last Song," " The Bather," " Labour," and "See also:Fortune," by decorative work for the exterior of the Imperial See also:Institute, and later by the great candelabra which flank the interior western end of St Paul's cathedral. " Into the Silent Land (1905) is a group typical of the funerary sculpture on which his chisel was engaged in later years. His portraiture is also noteworthy, and his work generally is usually sculpturesque, with movement and life. A. G. See also: By two striking works ,he has re-entered the field of pure sculpture—the dramatic and somewhat too anecdotal " A Royal See also:Game "and" The See also:Scout in War," exhibited in 1908, an equestrian group of great refinement and excellence. Alfred See also:Drury (b. 1857 ; A.R.A., 1.900) was a pupil of Dalou, whose assistant for a time he became. The first result was the curious echo of the master's style, " The Triumph of See also:Silenus " (1885). " The Genius of Sculpture " and "The First Reflection " (bought by the queen of See also:Saxony) and " The Evening See also:Prayer "(1890, Manchester See also:Corporation Gallery) were followed by the statue of " See also:Circe " (1893), which, through its grace, elegance of line, and symbolical realization of the subject, achieved a great popular success and was acquired by Leeds. The bronze head of " St See also:Agnes " (1894) is one of the first examples of Mr Drury's later style, belonging to the higher order of conception which, generally speaking, he has since maintained. This may be seen also in ` See also:Griselda (bought for the Chantrey Collection), " The Age of Innocence," and other busts symbolical of childhood, and in the series of " The Months," at See also:Barrow Court. For the decoration of the City Square at Leeds Drury executed the statue of Dr Priestly, consisting of the colossal figure entitled " Even." His colossal groups for the decoration of the War Office, thermonumental panels in high relief for the piers of Lambeth Bridge; and the decorative sculpture for the facade of the new Victoria and Albert Museum, all in London, are works of considerable importance. Among the latter are the figures of " Inspiration " and " Knowledge," executed in 1907. Drury's quiet, suave, and contemplative art lends itself well as decorative sculpture to architectural embellishment. His portraiture is also good, reticent, and full of character, and as a manipulator of clay he represents the highest contemporary . standard of English sculptors. Frederick W. See also:Pomeroy (A.R.A., 19x6), pupil of the Lambeth and Royal Academy Schools, and of Merci6, is of equal taste and ability. After 1888, when he exhibited the bronze statuette " Giotto," he produced many ideal works-" Love, the Conqueror " (Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool),, " Pleasures are like Poppies Spread," " Boy Piping," " Dionysos," and " The Nymph of See also:Loch See also:Awe " (both in the Tate Gallery), " A Nymph Finding the Head of Orpheus," " Undine," Pensee," and the clever study of the nude called " The Potter." Perseus " is an inspiration from Benvenuto Cellini, but ',' The Spearman " is an original and powerful work. " Feroniae " (1909) is a nude statue, in bronze, remarkable for grace and sculptural animation. In ideal portraiture he has produced the statues of " Admiral See also:Blake," " See also:Dean See also:Hook " (a colossal work for Leeds), "See also:Oliver Cromwell (also colossal, for St Ives, See also:Huntingdonshire), " Robert Burns " for See also:Paisley, as well as " R. P. Bonington " (1910), " See also:Monsignor See also:Nugent of Liverpool " (1905), an impressive group, and similar work, together with the life-size panel of " Archbishop Temple," in bronze, for St Paul's cathedral. In true portraiture, Pomeroy executed the Liberal Memorial Statue of Mr Gladstone, in the See also:lobby of the Houses of See also:Parliament, and the recumbent effigy of the Duke of Westminster, for See also:Chester cathedral. His work is strong and sculpturesque, and his statues " stand "well. He See also:sees nature in a big broad way; and his decoration is effective and well designed. Albert'Toft became known by his statue of " See also:Lilith (1889), and emphasized the impression then created by " See also:Fate-Led " (1892, Walker Art Gallery), " Age and the Angel of Death," " In the Sere and Yellow See also:Leaf " (a remarkable study of old age), " The See also:Goblet of Life," and " Hagar." " The Spirit of Contemplation " and " The See also:Cup of See also:Immortality " are more complete and display dignity and refinement. His memorials of the Boer War, at See also:Cardiff and See also:Birmingham, in design and See also:silhouette, are among the most striking in the country. In " Mother and Child " (1903) and " Maternity " (1905) he has greatly raised the high-See also:water mark of his achievement. Toft's busts, such as those of W. E. Gladstone and Philip See also:Bailey, as well as his statue of Sir Charles Mark See also:Palmer, at See also:Jarrow, and similar works, have force and breadth of character; and in his ideal work there is an effort, well sustained and successful, after dignity, harmony, evenness of balance, and relation of the whole. Professor tdouard Lanteri, a naturalized Englishman, to whom British sculpture owes much, employed his own striking gifts to See also:teach rather than to produce. But " The See also:Fencing Master," " The See also:Duet," and " A Garden Decoration " have exercised influence on the younger school through their fine sculptural qualities of vitality, richness, joyousness, sensuousness, and movement. His portrait busts are full of life and have that refinement and elegance pushed to the utmost length, which are characteristic of all his work; in his nude figure called " See also:Pax " we have much of the severity, dignity, and placid repose of the Greek. W. Birnie Rhind, R.S.A., has produced little work so important as the elaborate decorations for the See also:doorway of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, but some of his statues and busts—" King James V. of Scotland," " Lord Salisbury," and others—show the influence of the modern school. W. Goscombe John (b. 1860; A.R.A., 1899, R.A., 1909) achieved an early reputation with a figure of " St John the Baptist," an austere creation of real importance. His other chief works are " See also:Morpheus," " A Girl Binding her Hair," " A Boy at Play " (Tate Gallery), The Glamour of the Rose," and " The See also:Elf "—a weird creation of true See also:comedy. In these are shown a love of the purity and refinement of nature, realized with delicacy and a feeling for beauty. In portraiture Mr John is not less successful. The colossal seated statue of " The Duke of See also:Devonshire " at See also:Eastbourne has been acknowledged by the best critics in France and England to be one of the finest things of its kind, good in design and quiet suggestion of power. Among his chief memorials are the tomb of the marquess of Salisbury in Westminster Abbey, the " Memorial of the King's See also:Regiment " at Liverpool, the equestrian statue of "See also:Viscount See also:Tredegar " at Cardiff, the " Maharajah of See also:Balrampur " at See also:Lucknow, and the monument to Sir Arthur See also:Sullivan in the Embankment Gardens, London. These all sustain the reputation of the sculptor who has from the first been loyally encouraged by his fellow-countrymen of See also:Wales. The striking frieze " The Battle of Trafalgar," for the See also:pedestal of the statue of Viscount Tredegar (1910), is a remarkable performance. See also:Bertram See also:Mackennal (A.R.A., 1909), the son of a Scottish sculptor settled in See also:Australia, acknowledges no school, but was chiefly influenced by study in Paris. In his early ideal works, such as Circe " and " For She Sitteth on a Seat in the High Places of the City," there are boldness and a sense of drama, with a keen appreciation of elegance of form, not without severity and power of design. But they give little hint of the excellence that was to follow and to bring him to the very front rank of British sculptors, so that in 1910 he was selected to design the coinage of the new reign. His great pediment in the Local Government Offices in Whitehall is perhaps the finest work of its kind in the See also:Kingdom. " Diana," 1908, bought for the Chantrey Collection in the same year, is a marble nude of extraordinary grace, beauty, and refinement; and his small " Earth and the Elements," similarly acquired in the preceding year for the Chantrey Collection, reveals a poetic beauty rare in these days. " The Mother " (1910) belongs to this group. The bronze statue of " The Dancer " (1904) is a work not less subtle, in which the learnedness of the sculptor is evident to every discerning eye, and " War," a colossal female bust, reveals a power, amounting almost to ferocity, not disclosed in the other works. Among Mackennal's other important statuary are the War Memorial at See also:Islington and statues of Queen Victoria for India, Australia, and See also:Blackburn; in all of these the sculpture is marked by good style, with movement, vigour, grace and nervousness of treatment. G. See also:Herbert Hampton made his first appearance in the Paris Saleh with " The Mother of Evil," and then the statues of " David " and Apollo " and " The Broken See also:Vow," " A Mother and Child," " See also:Narcissus," " Orpheus " and other works were seen in the London galleries. Portraiture of merit has come from Mr Hampton, bltt his greatest success, perhaps, has been achieved in decorative sculpture. F. E. Schenck (d. 1908) was similarly and more emphatically an architect's sculptor—one of those who have done much to embellish many of the numerous great buildings which during the last twenty years of the 19th and the opening decade of the present century sprang up all over Great Britain. The municipal buildings at See also:Stafford and Oxford, the public library at See also:Shoreditch, and the Scotsman offices in Edinburgh—involving groups of colossal figures bearing close relation to their architectural setting—are among the works which made his reputation. His defect was a " curliness in his ornamental forms, which frequently detracts from the dignity and seriousness of his work. J. See also:Wenlock Robbins is another architectural sculptor of real power and individuality, whose work for the New General See also:Hospital in Birmingham and for the Town Hall of See also:Croydon is of a high order. His portraiture is also good, the colossal statue of " Queen Victoria " for See also:Belfast being the most important of his achievements. Of ideal work, the statue called " Nydia " is the best known. Henry C. Fehr (pupil at the Royal Academy and of T. Brock) contributed the group of " Perseus and See also:Andromeda " to the Academy in 1893, when it was See also:purchased for the Chantrey Collection (Tate Gallery). His subsequent ideal works, " Hypnos Bestowing See also:Sleep upon the Earth," " The Spirit of the Waves," " St George and the Rescued See also:Maiden," and " Ambition's Crown Fraught with See also:Pain," confirmed the high See also:opinion of his cleverness; but in some of them his exuberance tells somewhat against their general effect, in spite of their inherent grace and strength. On the other hand, the statue of " James See also:Watt " for the City Square of Leeds exhibits those qualities needful for open-air portraiture; and his busts and statues have character and life. " Isabella and the Pot of See also:Basil " is free from this defect, and is an original treatment of the subject; and " The Briton " (1908), though full of vigour and imagination, shows restraint. George See also:Wade is essentially a sculptor of busts and statues; the most noteworthy of his works are the memorial to Sir John See also:Macdonald in See also:Montreal, the seated figure for See also:Madras of the native See also:judge, Sir T. See also:Aiyar Muthuswamy, and a number of ambitious monumental works. Gilbert Bayes, at first a modeller in the flat of horses treated in a decorative manner, produced " Vanity," " A See also:Knight-Errant," and similar picturesque bibelots on a large scale; and later still, such work as " The Fountain of the See also:Zodiac," showing a talent at once more serious, ordered and graceful. " The Coming of See also:Spring" (1904) and " The Gallopers " (1905) are reliefs noteworthy for the intelligence and the sculptural appropriateness they display. The equestrian " See also:Sigurd " (1909 and 1910) is full of fancy and illustrates the personal talent of the sculptor: the latter group was acquired for the Chantrey Collection. He is the designer of the great See also:seal (1910). W. R. Colton (b. 1867; A.R.A., 1903) is a sculptor of strong individuality, capable equally of deep feeling and dainty fancy. " The See also:Girdle," " The See also:Image-Finder," " The Crown of Love," The Wavelet " and the " The Spring-tide of Life" revealed a sculptor of exceptional ability, whose love of truth and life has sometimes inspired him to place a touch of rather awkward realism in a graceful and charming composition; the result is something unusual, yet quite natural, and because it imparts to the work a flavour of quaintness and originality, it is not only unobjectionable but welcome. Later, Colton struck out another path especially in the monumental and statuary work executed in England and India. Among his principal efforts are the South See also:African memorial to the Royal See also:Artillery erected in the Mall, London, during the summer of 1910, the statue of the Maharajah of See also:Mysore (1906) and a monumental " See also:Tiger " (1909) in bronze—a work of considerable power. His vigour of design and sense of style made him a force in the younger school of sculptors. He has acted as professor of sculpture at the Royal Academy. David McGill first attracted attention with the relief of " See also:Hero and Leander," following it with a series of figures, of which the most striking is " The Bather," a work at once of vigour and of See also:humour. His work is good in pose and line, refined in See also:drawing And feeling, and excellent in style.
Charles J. See also:Allen belongs to the same group. " Love and the Mermaid " (Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool), " A See also:Dream of Love," " Rescued " and " Love's Tangles " (1908) are works of high merit, in every case good in treatment, free in modelling and pleasing in design. His important Queen Victoria memorial in Liverpool was unveiled in 1906, and the monument to " Rt. Hon. Samuel See also: " The Angel of Sad Flowers," "Orpheus and See also:Eurydice " and " Adam and Eve " reveal his strength in ideal work; and the statue of " Sir See also:Sidney See also:Waterlow " at See also:Highgate is a good example of his monumental portraiture. In " The Sandal," a small nude kneeling figure, he has turned frankly to classic coldness,. and even the purity of design and modelling cannot warm it into life. J. Pittendrigh Macgillvray, R.S.A., belongs to the rather meagre Scottish group, of whom he is generally regarded as the chief. His chief work consists mainly of monuments and colossal memorials. The " Peter Low Memorial " in See also:Glasgow cathedral, the " Robert Burns," the "Allan Family`Memorial," the fine relief of " Rhythm" and the " National Gladstone Memorial " for Scotland are his leading works. With these should be considered the Dean See also:Montgomery Memorial " in St Mary's cathearal, Edinburgh, and the " John See also:Knox Memorial " in St See also:Giles's cathedral. F. See also:Derwent Wood (A.R.A., 1910) is a sculptor of exceptional ability. His varied training—at the Royal College of Art, the See also:Slade School, the Royal Academy schools, and under M. See also:Rodin and Mr Brock—gave him a wide outlook without impairing his individuality. His merit was recognized as soon as he quitted his masters, and he forthwith won the competition for a series of statues representing the arts for the Kelvingrove art gallery at Glasgow. A great mural tomb followed, with " Love Sacred and Profane " as its motif, together with a series of other works of growing artistic importance. " Cain " (1906), a vigorous, dramatic, yet wholly sculpturesque figure, is in powerful contrast to the three works that appeared in successive years: " Abundance " (a group of a woman and
two children) and the marble statues " See also:Atalanta " and " Psyche all of them the type of grace in pose and of beauty of face and form.
At the same time Derwent Wood produced the two boy figures on the piers to the southward of the Queen Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace. There is marked individuality in all he does, sculpturesque character, firmness and delicacy of handling, with a richness of style and appreciation. of breadth and simplicity.
Paul Montford, the son of Horace Montford, after a brilliant academic career made his mark in decorative sculpture. It is not by such work as " Court Favourites " (1906) that he sustains his reputation, but rather by the sculptural embellishments wherewith the archway connecting the Local Government offices with the Home Office in Whitehall is enriched. The See also:Spinning Girl " is one of his best ideal figures, and the 18th century " Viscount Boling-broke " and " The See also:Storm Waves are characteristic of his vigorous style and personal conception and execution.
John See also:Tweed, who studied under See also:Falguiere and Rodin, was influenced more by the latter than by the former, and inclines rather to the impressionistic school than to the academic. His statue of See also:Cecil See also:Rhodes has power and emphasis—it impresses rather than attracts. The statues of Queen Victoria at See also:Aden, of See also:van Riebeck at Cape Town, and the See also: " Brother Ruffino " has dignity and strength, and the " Bacchus " of 1907 is realistic enough to repel those who ask for elegance even in an unrefined subject. The work, however, is ably treated. Henry Poole belongs to the same vigorous school, and has a true sense of the monumental, as is evident in his colossal group of " The Mermaids "; while his " Naiad " (1909) shows an innate refinement. S. See also:Nicholson Babb, for some years an assistant of Mr Brock, has produced an ambitious " War Memorial " and many able groups and figures, among which " The Coming of Spring " (1910) reveals the modern French influence. Albert H. See also:Hodge stands by himself. As a sculptor-decorator with special views on relief-work in which he adheres to the sentiment and character of the architecture it is to embellish, he adopts a See also:convention which gives the appearance of high relief to what is really low, by sharpness of edges and by a learned use of light and shade. His panels of " See also:Science and Art " (1904) and " See also:Commerce " (1906) are good illustrations of this original kind of architectonic work, while his large equestrian group of " Prosperity " applies the same principles to the round. These three works were modelled for the town of See also:Hull. A man of similar force is Joseph Epstein, who replaces refinement by vigour, archaic simplicity, and primitiveness of outlook, as though casting his See also:vote in favour of the Garden of See also:Eden as against the garden of the Tuileries. His work, in which he leans towards the modern German view, is mainly decoration for buildings; his most discussed productions are the statues (1907) on the topmost See also:storey of the British Medical Association offices. Richard Garbe, a sculptor of equal strength, was a pupil of the London County See also:Council School of Arts and Crafts and began to exhibit in 1898. Rugged power both in subject and execution mark his productions. His ideal works, such as " The Egoist " (1906), " Man and the Ideal " (1907), " The Idealist " (1908) and " Undine " (1909), illustrate his range of thought and reveal his uncommon vigour which amounts, it might be said, to well-controlled, idealistic brutality; they are broad and impressive, and are conceived in a monumental spirit. Charles L. Hartwell has grace and strength combined. The nude figure representing " The Rising Tide" (1906), reminding us a little of Leighton's work, and " The Bathers " (1907), are both works of refinement and elegance, and " Dawn " (1909) displays unusual charm and, like the others, offers a silhouette of much interest. While much poetry of expression and grace of composition distinguish his " See also:Sirens " (1910), vigour is the note of the small group " A Foul in the Giants' Race," which was acquired by the Chantrey trustees in 1908. See also:Benjamin Clemens, pupil of Professor Lanteri and the Royal College of Art, is another member of this talented group. His life-size ideal figures, " See also:Sappho " (1902), " Cain (1904), " Eurydice " (1906), " Andromeda " (1907) and " See also:Aurora" (1908), all made their mark when exhibited in the Royal Academy, and showed the sculptor to he possessed of the qualities of sensitiveness, elegance, and strength. The group of " Kephalos and Prokris " (1910) is his most important and most striking work. Harold See also:Parker came to England from Australia in 1896 at the age of twenty-three, and after studying under W. S. Frith, made many Academic successes, and in 1904 exhibited his plaster life-size statue of " See also:Ariadne," which, translated into marble and re-exhibited in 1908, was bought by the trustees of the Chantrey Collection and isnow in the Tate Gallery. His other more important works include " The Long, Long Dreams of Youth " (1906), " Narcissus " (1906), and " Prometheus " (1909). Without revealing any striking originality, Parker displays very considerable accomplishment and a good sense of the sculpturesque, and his busts are refined and good.
Oliver See also:Wheatley, formerly assistant to Brock, and pupil of Aman-Jean, has done much decorative work. His life-size recumbent statue " Awakening " is among the best of his figures.
T. See also:Tyrrell, who first attracted attention by his decorative figures on Professor Pite's house in See also:Mortimer See also:Street, London, has shown much graceful fancy in his " The Ideal, " such as " The Whisper " (1906)
See also:Reuben See also:Sheppard has shown himself poetic and pleasing in symbolic suggestion in his striking half-length group " The Music of Death " (1907) ; and Oliver Sheppard, in his " Eve " of the same year, produced a graceful work.
The Irish sculptor, John See also:Hughes, achieved a great success by his monument to Queen Victoria erected in Dublin. It is a fine See also:combination of sculptural and architectural effect and richness of grouping, and although it reveals too great a love of ornament it is impressive alike in See also:mass, design, silhouette, and general arrangement.
There should also be mentioned, among the younger sculptors, Mortimer Brawn (" St John the Baptist "), David B. See also: See also:Arnold See also:Wright. The See also:women sculptors include such accomplished amateurs as H.R.H. the duchess of See also:Argyll (" A Crucifix "—the Colonial Memorial in St Paul's cathedral) and Countess See also:Gleichen. The principal See also:recent names are those of Mary See also:Pownall (Mrs Bromet), (" A See also:Harpy "), E. M. Rope (" Springtime," relief), See also:Ruby Levick (" Fishermen hauling a Net "), Margaret Winser (" Mourners," a relief), See also:Esther See also:Moore (" At the Gates of the Past "), Edith Maryon (" The Poet of See also:Umbria "), and Gwendolen See also:Williams ("The See also:Lorelei," 1907, and charming groups of children). The sculptor-decorators make a group of workers of striking fancy and ability. See also:Lynn See also:Jenkins, whose frieze. in bronze, ivory and mother-of-See also:pearl at Lloyd's Registry is a remarkable achievement, is one of the leaders. He has latterly devoted himself to pure sculpture, such as the life-size bronze figure on a sarcophagus, " Destiny " (19o9 and 1910) and bust portraits remarkable for exquisite feeling and delicacy of carving. See also:Walter See also:Crane designed for Manchester a See also:mace that is remarkable for beauty of conception and felicity of See also:symbol-ism. Alexander Fisher and Nelson See also:Dawson should be included in the group. Other sculptors already mentioned, including Thorny-See also:croft, Gilbert, Frampton, Pomeroy, Colton and Toft, have all de-voted themselves to sculptural decoration pure and simple, whether in metal, stone, or marble. The painter-sculptors claim among them Alfred Stevens, Sir Edwin Landseer, Lord Leighton, J. M. Swan, W. Reynolds-Stephens, George Richmond, and G. F. See also:Watts. George Richmond's real talent may be gauged by his "Monument to Bishop See also:Blomfield " in St Paul's cathedral. His son, Sir William Richmond, K.C.B., has also practised in sculpture—the memorial tomb of Mr and Mrs Gladstone is his. Watts educated himself artistically on the Elgin Marbles, and he produced half a dozen pieces of sculpture which place him high among the world's finest sculptors of the 19th century. The recumbent effigy of " Bishop See also:Lonsdale " in Lichfield cathedral was an See also:epoch-marking work, not only in the technical matter of the bold treatment of the drapery, but in largeness and breadth and its noble sense of style, and the " Lord See also:Lothian " in Bickling church is also very remarkable. The artist then produced the colossal equestrian group of " Hugh See also:Lupus " for the duke of Westminster (See also:Eaton Hall), a composition as imaginative and original as it is grand and sculpturesque. Then followed " Physical Energy," another equestrian group, which, after being about twenty years in progress, was cast in 1902; it was executed in duplicate; one copy has been set up in South See also:Africa, to the memory of Cecil Rhodes, whose character it may be held to symbolize, and the other has been erected in Kensington Gardens, London, at the expense of the British government. In 1902 also, the statue of " Lord Tennyson "was completed. But the bust of " Clytie " is surpassed in bigness and classic purity of style and feeling by nothing ever produced in England; it is a complete and noble thing. There is no sculptor who has come nearer to obtaining the grandeur of form which is so wonderful in the Greek masterpieces. Simple in line, immense in character, full and rich in modelling, Watts's work is instinct with vigour, breadth and movement. It sets the true standard, and is a constant and a noble warning to sculptors of the younger school not to be led away by the dainty and fanciful, however alluring. Especially it warns them against what has become a feature with a' certain section—the devotion to metal-working, enamelling, and the like, and the free introduction of these accessories into serious sculptural work. Irresistible in the hands of a great artist like Alfred Gilbert, such work, at all times attractive, is the goldsmith's and ironsmith's business rather than the sculptor's; and although it has coloured the work of some of the younger sculptors of the day, it is not likely to obtain any very wide hold, or French derived from the dead fables of See also:heathen mythology. The best sculpture. epoch in its history. Not that many new and unexpected men of genius suddenly arose, for most of the artists that would be expected from this was choice elegance of line, who then came to the front had already distinguished themselves a harmonious treatment of mass and composition, a loving by equally noble work; but sculpture, like the other arts, study of the nude—in short, a purely plastic type of art. And benefited by the pause for thought, and by the ripe and manly sculpture had become the art of the nobility and of the court, See also:tone stamped on the national mind by the discipline of events. having no hold, as it had in the past, on the great human family—Intense ardour animated the admirable group of French sculptors: the nation. Still, even at the high tide of Louis XIV.'s reign, the See also:oldest still found some lofty expression; the men in their some dissatisfaction became evident, even some rebellion, in See also:prime showed their powers with unwonted force and See also:fire; the great though solitary spirit of Puget, who strove to animate and the younger generations grew up in rapid succession a the marble with the passions of humanity. In the next century close See also:phalanx of sculptors whose number is still increasing, he found followers—See also:Falconet, Pigalle and Houdon, who also for if we include only living artists, and those who have taken asserted their right to infuse life and passion and movement honours in the Salons, we find a list of seven hundred exhibitors. into their statues, seeking them in the despised See also:province of stern The first generation of survivors of the war, who led the way reality. The great See also:cataclysm of the Revolution, which might in the new period, still boasted of such men as See also:Dumont (1801- have been expected to break the bonds of thought, turned men's 1884), Cavelier (1814-1894), Bonnassieux (1810-1892), See also:Jouffroy minds to contemplate the Antique, and though it certainly (1806-1882), Schoenewerck (1820-1885), See also:Carrier-Belleuze (1824- modified the style of sculpture, was far from changing the source 1887), Aime See also:Millet (1819-1891) and Clesinger (1814-1883). of its inspiration, since it sent it once more to the Antique. These artists, See also:born in the first quarter of the 19th century, were Indeed at the beginning of the 19th century, when the teaching for the most part each the head of a studio, their teaching being of David was paramount in spite of See also:Gros, who, then in the carried on till the end of the century. Next to them followed master's studio, was unconsciously See also:sowing the See also:seed of romanticism their immediate pupils, already their rivals, and some indeed in painting, a robust individuality was developing among famous before the new era; such were See also:Guillaume, See also:Dubois and French sculptors—a spirit somewhat rugged, See also:independent, Fremiet; others, fresh from the Academy at Rome, at once rose and partly trained, beyond the academic See also:pale, prepared to carry to distinction, and all combined to form the remarkable group on the tradition of Puget, and quite simply, without any revolu of artists to which the modern school of French sculpture owes tionary airs of innovation, to shake off torpid conventionality. its world-wide fame. At this time See also:Eugene Guillaume (1822- By the mere force of a strong plebeian temperament Rude quite 1905) was exhibiting his " Roman See also:Marriage," his " Bust of Mgr naturally happened on a style of art—high art—at once expressive See also:Darboy," his " Orpheus," and " See also:Andromache," works of learned and popular. He was the first to raise the cry of liberty in skill and severe distinction. Paul Dubois (1829-1905) executed sculpture, and he left successors who bravely worked out what his " Narcissus," and the " Tomb of General See also:Lamoriciere," on he had begun. Barye and Carpeaux were both in 1875 on the which the decorative figures of Charity, Faith, and Military threshold of an era to which they bequeathed a fruitful influence. Courage are popular favourites, full of See also:grave and pathetic Barye carried on Rude's tradition of expression, and transformed feeling. See also:Chapu (1833-1891) executed his exquisite figure of what had previously been mere decorative carving into a new " Youth " for the tomb of See also:Henri See also:Regnault, and that of style and branch of art now adopted by a whole phalanx of " Thought " for the tomb of Daniel Stern, his monuments to admirable artists: the sculpture, namely, of animals, the first See also:Berryer and to Mgr See also:Dupanloup. Barrias' (1841-1905) " First glance that sculpture had till then bestowed on nature apart Interment " won him the See also:medal of honour in 1878; besides from man. Carpeaux, who was much younger, was in his day—his patriotic group of the " See also:Defence of Paris." Falguiere as Puget had been—an exceptional See also:personality; he carried (1831-1900) produced a remarkable series of statues, character- on the slow revolt of two centuries which was to break the narrow ized by their life-like power; some dignified or pathetic, as See also:mould of school-training and infuse a soul of more ardent vitality " St See also:Vincent de Paul," " La Rochejacquelein," and " Cardinal into sculptured forms. See also:Lavigerie "; some full of bold and dashing spirit, as his " Diana," The importance of these two great artists in relation to con-his " Nereids," and " See also:Hunting Nymphs." See also:Mercie gave us temporary art was not fully seen till after their death. In point " Gloria Victis," " Quand Mettle," and his monuments, among of fact Painting had until now amply filled the new part assigned which that called " Memory " must be mentioned; his pediment to Art; its vehement efforts had strongly influenced public for the Tuileries; his " Genius of Art," &c. Delaplanche opinion; and as, in the early years of the 19th century, it had (1836-189o) produced his " Mother's Teaching," " Music," largely extended the field of human vision over the remote " The Virgin with a See also:Lily," and " Aurora "; and Allar " The past and the domains of feeling, with the promise of See also:surveying Death of See also:Alcestis." To these names must be added those of all nature, space and time, the spirit of the age asked no more, Degeorge, who, with Chapu, gave so powerful an impetus to the and did not expect sculpture, too, to abandon old-world myths. art of the medallist; of Gautherin, Hiolle, Thomas, See also:Crauck, It must also be said that those sculptors who at that time carried Lafrance, Maniglier and See also:Moreau-Vauthier—one of the men who, on the classical tradition had renewed its youth by their learned with See also:GerOme (the painter) and Fremiet, revived the taste for and enthusiastic love of it; they had reverted to the past, coloured sculpture, a style first attempted long before by Simart; but it was the past of the really great masters, either of antiquity besides many more. These artists created a supremely healthy or of the early Florentine school, no less enamoured of life, and vital school of sculpture, dignified and elegant, learned and beauty and nature. Guillaume and Paul Dubois, Chapu and varied, fresh and charming, and, above all, as single-hearted Falguiere, Mercie, and Delaplanche were the rivals in sculpture and as well trained as in any period of history. of the great idealist painters—Puvis de Chavannes, Gustave To understand, however, the position of contemporary Moreau, See also:Ricard, See also:Delaunay, See also:Baudry, and See also:Henner—who were sculpture in France, it will be necessary to look back even working at the same time. to exercise permanent influence for evil. The variety and independ- further than 187o. It must be remembered that the whole ence of the British School are such that it is impossible to define any history of French sculpture, as far back as the . 17th century, particular tendency in its practice other than towards an ever- is connected with the invasion of Italian influence in the 16th increasing rise in the level of technical excellence and the power of design. There is, broadly speaking, a general stand against the century, which remained paramount over French art for more " modernity " imported into sculpture by the younger members of than three hundred years. Statue-making, until then an art the foreign schools, and a disinclination to See also:bend the art to the illustra- of expression—national , popular, human and Christian—lost tion of everyday life and to the rendering of effects not hitherto its primitive character under the See also:dilettante refinement of an considered to be the function of the plastic arts. (M. H. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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